Contents of the powerpoint on Cell junctions – Structure and role include:
Plasma membrane its structure & components
Extracellular matrix & its role
Types of cell junctions
Tight junctions molecular structure & role
– Blood brain barrier
Adherens junctions structure & role
Desmosomes structure & role
Hemidesmosomes
Focal adhesions
Gap junctions structure & function
Conclusion
References
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Dissolve 36 grams of potassium iodide in 100ml of water.
Dissolve 14 grams of Iodine in the above solution
Add 3 drops of dilute HCl
Finally make upto 1000 ml with water
Standardisation of 0.1 N Iodine solution
Weigh about 0.15 gn of arsenic trioxide which was previously dried at 1050C for 1 hour
Dissolve in 20ml of 1 N sodium hydroxide solution by warming if necessary
Dilute with 40 ml of water and 2 drops of methyl orange solution was added
Dil.HCl was added drop by drop until the yellow colour is changed to pink; then add 2grams of sodium carbonate, dilute with 50 ml of water and add 3 ml of starch solution
Titrate with 0.1 N Iodine solution taken in burette until a permanent blue colour of starch is produced
Each ml of 0.1 N Iodine solution ≡ 0.00496 grams of Arsenic Trioxide
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Contents of the powerpoint on Solid Lipid Nanoparticles SLN include:
INTRODUCTION
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COLLOIDAL PARTICLES WITH SLNS
STRUCTURE OF SLN
GENERAL INGREDIENTS
PREPARATION METHODS
CHARACTERIZATION
APPLICATIONS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Pharmacists are higher salaried professionals in US and other foreign countries, where pharmacists are allowed to practice clinical pharmacy. They have statutory system in which patient is diagnosed by physicians or doctors (which is their exact responsibility not to prescribe drugs) and then the patient sent ahead to pharmacist with diagnosis report. Pharmacist is allowed to prescribe the patient and normally who charge more than physician. Average salary in USA is 40-50 or more USD per hour in beginning….
In India also the same course called as “Pharm D” is introduced for the academic year 2008- 2009. The Pharmacy Council of India is the apex body controlling the course. Although to date there is not an exact recognition of clinical pharmacy in India but it is sure that one has the greatest & the brightest career in US after clearing the NAPLEX and may be in future in India there will be higher prospectus for the course.
Click here to see B.Pharmacy & M. Pharmacy Projects topics The basic requirement for pharmacists to be considered for registration is an undergraduate or postgraduate Pharmacy degree from a recognized university. In most countries this involves a four- or Six year course to attain a Master of Pharmacy (M Pharm). In the United States, students graduating after Jan 1, 2003 must complete a Doctor of Pharmacy degree to become a licensed pharmacist; this requires completion of four years at an accredited college of pharmacy (most students applying for admission into a college of pharmacy already have an undergraduate degree; however, many schools admit students after completion of 2 years of undergraduate pharmacy prerequisites or directly from high school into a six-year accelerated program). Any person holding a bachelor’s degree in Pharmacy who graduated before this date is grandfathered and can register. Thus, in USA the legal requirements of becoming a pharmacist include graduating with a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm D) degree from an accredited college of pharmacy, serving an internship under a licensed pharmacist, and passing a state (NAPLEX) and law exam. The designation Pharm D is often likened to a PhD degree, however in actuality it is an advanced degree that became the standard of practice for graduates of pharmacy schools around the turn of the 21st century (2001). The former degree was a Bachelor of Pharmacy and required slightly less schooling and different curriculum. Due to the changes to health care in today’s society and the increasing need for counseling and medication maintenance, pharmacists have taken on a larger role as clinicians. This increase in the need for accessible health care information for consumers has led to great strides in the field of pharmacy. One result of this has been a change in the way pharmacy schools structure their curriculum as well as an advanced doctorate degree, which further sets the pharmacist apart as a trusted ally in a patient’s health care treatment regimen.
Now you can see Pharmaceutical Companies in Mumbai where you can choose to work. In fact, pharmacists consistently rank as one of the most trusted professionals in today’s society.This degree requires the completion of at least five years of post-secondary schooling but usually requires at least 6-8 years at present time, depending on which state you live in and the pharmacy school which you attend. The former degree obtained upon completion of pharmacy school was a Bachelor in Pharmacy or BS and pharmacists with this designation were given the title RPh. In the USA, pharmacists who acquire a Pharm D degree are legally allowed to add the prefix “Dr.” before his / her name. Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs.
Scope & Objectives of PharmD Programme in India:
Objective of Pharm D Programme 1. To provide patient care in cooperation with patients, doctors, and other members of an inter-professional health care team based upon sound therapeutics principles and evidence-based data, taking into account relevant legal, ethical, social cultural, economic and professional issues, emerging technologies, and evolving biomedical,pharmaceutical, social, or behavioral or administrative, and clinical sciences that may impart therapeutic outcomes.
Just check the Best Pharmacy Schools in USA and links to their Websites 2. To manage and use resources of health care system, in co-operation with patients, doctors and other health care providers and administrative and supportive personnel, to promote health; to provide, assess, and coordinate safe, accurate, and time sensitive medication distribution; and to improve therapeutic outcomes of medication use. 3. To promote health improvement, wellness, and disease prevention in co-operation with patients, communities, at-risk population and other members of an inter-professional team of health care providers. 4. To demonstrate skills in monitoring of the National Health Programmes and schemes, oriented to provide preventive and promotive health care services to the community. 5. To develop leadership qualities to function effectively as a member of health care team organized to deliver the health and family welfare services in existing socio-economic, political and cultural environment. 6. To communicate effectively with patients and the community.
• The prime (No.1) sectors which need the service of Pharm Ds are the pharmaceutical industries. They make new medicines and they need the professionals first than any other sector. Then the second priority comes to the hospitals of pharmacies where it is used or distributed. Production is may be one among ten divisions of an industry where Pharm Ds may not be needed. The numerous and diverse career options available to Pharm D students:
1. Clinical Research
1. Clinical Research : Clinical research is a branch of medical science that determines the safety and effectiveness of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease. The term clinical research refers to the entire bibliography of a drug/device/biologic, in fact any test article from its inception in the lab to its introduction to the consumer market and beyond. Once the promising candidate or the molecule is identified in the lab, it is subjected to pre-clinical studies or animal studies where different aspects of the test (including its safety toxicity if applicable and efficacy, if possible at this early stage) are studied. The focus of clinical research is wide enough to include important items such as data management, medical writing, regulatory consultation, and biostatistics.
Pharmacovigilance (abbreviated PV or PhV) is the pharmacological science relating to the detection, assessment, understanding and prevention of adverse effects, particularly long-term and short-term side effects of medicines. Generally speaking, pharmacovigilance is the science of collecting, monitoring, researching, assessing and evaluating information from healthcare providers and patients on the adverse effects of medications, biological products, herbalism and traditional medicines with a view to: identifying new information about hazards associated with medicines and 2) preventing harm to patients.
3. Research & Development
Research & Development: The phrase research and development refers to the “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications”.
4. Medical Writing
Medical Writing: Is the activity of producing scientific documentation by a specialized writer. The medical writer typically is not one of the scientists or doctors who performed the research. A medical writer, working with doctors, scientists, and other subject matter experts, creates documents that effectively and clearly describe research results, product use and other medical information. The medical writer also makes sure the documents comply with regulatory, journal, or other guidelines in terms of content, format and structure.
A product manager investigates, selects, and develops products for an organization, performing the activities of product management.
6. Regulatory affairs:
Regulatory Affairs (RA), also called Government Affairs, is a profession within regulated industries, such as pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Regulatory Affairs professionals usually have responsibility for the following general areas: Ensuring that their companies comply with all of the regulations and laws pertaining to their business. Working with federal, state, and local regulatory agencies and personnel on specific issues affecting their business. i.e. working with such agencies as the Food and Drug Administration or European Medicines Agency (pharmaceuticals and medical devices); The Department of Energy; or the Securities and Exchange Commission (banking). Advising their companies on the regulatory aspects and climate that would affect proposed activities. i.e. describing the “regulatory climate” around issues such as the promotion of prescription drugs and Sarbanes-Oxley compliance. 7. Correspondents & Trainers 8. Top level medical representatives 9. Academics
A community pharmacy is a community-based pharmacy. The main responsibilities of a community pharmacy include appropriate procurement, storage, dispensing, and documentation of medicines. In compliance with the vision of the community pharmacy section of the International Pharmaceutical Federation, community pharmacists should 1. be experts in pharmaceutical care, pharmacotherapy, and health promotion. 2. be professional communicators with patients, other healthcare providers, and decision makers. 3. deliver good quality in products, services, and communication. 4. document their actions and make descriptions and publications. The above mentioned requirement is being fulfilled by the PharmD course.
11.Geriatric Pharmacy:
Geriatrics is a sub-specialty of internal medicine and family medicine that focuses on health care of elderly people. It aims to promote health by preventing and treating diseases and disabilities in older adults.
Home Care, (also referred to as domiciliary care or social care), is health care or supportive care provided in the patient’s home by healthcare professionals (often referred to as home health care or formal care. Often, the term home health care is used to distinguish non-medical care or custodial care, which is care that is provided by persons who are not nurses, doctors, or other licensed medical personnel, as opposed to home health care that is provided by licensed personnel.
14. Hospital Pharmacy:
A hospital pharmacy is concerned with pharmacy service to all types of hospital and differs considerably from a community pharmacy. Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex business and customer relations issues. Because of the complexity of the medication use system, many pharmacists practicing in hospitals gain more education and training after pharmacy school through a pharmacy practice residency and sometimes followed by another residency in a specific area.
15. Managed Care:
The term managed care is used in the United States to describe a variety of techniques intended to reduce the cost of providing health benefits and improve the quality of care (“managed care techniques”) for organizations that use those techniques or provide them as services to other organizations (“managed care organization” or “MCO”), or to describe systems of financing and delivering health care to enrollees organized around managed care techniques and concepts (“managed care delivery systems”). According to the United States National Library of Medicine, the term “managed care” encompasses programs: …intended to reduce unnecessary health care costs through a variety of mechanisms, including: economic incentives for physicians and patients to select less costly forms of care; programs for reviewing the medical necessity of specific services; increased beneficiary cost sharing; controls on inpatient admissions and lengths of stay; the establishment of cost-sharing incentives for outpatient surgery; selective contracting with health care providers; and the intensive management of high-cost health care cases.
16. Pharmacoeconomics:
Refers to the scientific discipline that compares the value of one pharmaceutical drug or drug therapy to another. It is a sub-discipline of Health economics. A pharmacoeconomic study evaluates the cost (expressed in monetary terms) and effects (expressed in terms of monetary value, efficacy or enhanced quality of life) of a pharmaceutical product. We can distinguish several types of pharmacoeconomic evaluation: cost-minimization analysis, cost-benefit analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis and cost-utility analysis. Pharmacoeconomic studies serve to guide optimal healthcare resource allocation, in a standardized and scientifically grounded manner. One important consideration in a pharmacoeconomic evaluation is to decide the perspective from which the analysis should be conducted (such as institutional or societal). 17. Any more opportunities that can be explored…….
Approaches to Discovery and Development of Natural Products as lead compounds
There are multiple hit identification strategies, and new drugs come from many sources, both rational and brute force. The exploitation of drug prototypes has been reviewed extensively. Some have argued that starting with an old drug is the best way to find a new drug. This has been called selective optimization of side activities (SOSA). Thus, one starts with a diverse collection of marketed drugs in order to find and then optimize hits against new pharmacological targets. Because the starting points have already proved useful in man, the hits are guaranteed to be drug-like. A number of successful SOSA examples have been reported starting from sulfonamides, calcium channel blockers, beta blockers, antidepressants, neuroleptics, and so on. Despite the power of combinatorial chemistry and HTS, natural products still provide unique structural diversity. Natural molecules have intrinsic advantages, of course, having evolved alongside biological systems. Mother Nature had eons of a head start versus medicinal chemists. Thus, it might have been predictable that a large percentage, almost 30%, of the NCEs approved by the FDA between 1981 and 2002 were natural products or compounds derived from natural products. Natural products (or derivatives) with important therapeutic uses today include the antibiotic vancomycin, the anticholinergic scopolamine, and the opiate morphine, to name just a few.
However, in recent years, natural products have gone out of favor in some circles, in part because they have been less compatible with other new technologies, such as HTS.
New drugs come from many sources including:
* Focused synthesis of new chemical structures
* Modification of old drugs (new analogs)
* New uses for old drugs (repositioning or repurposing)
* Endogenous substances found in humans;
* Natural products from non-human sources; and
* Random screening.
Though the field of combinatorial chemistry is still evolving, it has already made a mark on the industry.
Hit identification strategies.
The most commonly applied hit identification strategies today range from knowledge based approaches, which use literature- and patent-derived molecular entities, endogenous ligands or biostructural information, to the purely serendipity-based ‘brute force’ methods such as combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening.
Serendipity, Combinatorial chemistry and HTS play a major role in identification of lead molecules from natural products
In brief Drugs from Natural Sources can be identified by the following processes
Lead identification/optimization is the one of the most important steps in drug development. The chemical structure of the lead compound is used as a starting point for chemical modifications in order to improve potency, selectivity. Potency, efficacy and selectivity are not the only needed characteristics of a drug; the drug has to have certain pharmacokinetic parameters so as to be involved in further drug development Once a molecule is identified, the next step is to check its ADMET (Adsorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity) properties. If the molecule has no toxicity and no mutagenicity either, it has potential for use as lead molecule. Further optimization gives better quality of lead molecules. These may subsequently be developed as drug(s)
New compounds that show promising therapeutics potential based on the biological activity are subject to further studies aimed at developing a promising pharmaceutical candidate for preclinical studies and clinical trials.
Optimization of leads basically involves the following goals
Suitably altering the lead so as to improve the ADME characteristics of the drug
improving pharmacokinetic characterization of Drugs
Optimization of a lead is also expected to remedy the following shortcomings by molecular manipulation which includes
• Freedom from mutagenicity
• Freedom from teratogenicity
• Chemical stability
• Synthetic or biological accessibility
• Acceptable cost
• Ability to patent
• Clinical efficacy
• Solubility
• Satisfactory taste
• Ability to formulate satisfactorily for administration
The Nobel prize in chemistry for the year 2013 was awarded jointly to Martin Karplus (Harvard University) , Michael Levitt (Stanford School of Medicine) and Arieh Warshel (University of Southern California) for “the development of multi-scale models for complex chemical systems”.
The fact that scientists these days can use computers to carry out experiments has yielded a much deeper understanding of how chemical processes play out. Computer models mirroring real life have become crucial for most advances made in chemistry today. Chemists earlier used to create models of molecules using plastic balls and sticks. Today, the modelling is carried out in computers.
Wayback in the 1970s, Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt and Arieh Warshel laid the foundation for the powerful programs that are used to understand and predict chemical processes.
The strength of the methods the trio have developed is that they are universal. They can be used to study all kinds of chemistry – from the basic molecules of life to the complex industrial chemical processes enabling scientists to optimize solar cells, catalysts in motor vehicles and even drugs, to name a few.
Their methods have been devised basing on both classical and quantum physics. For example, in simulations of how a drug couples (DRUG interaction) to its target protein in the body, the software performs quantum theoretical calculations on those atoms in the target protein that are interacting with the drug. The remainder of the large protein is simulated using less demanding classical physics . In the present day computer has become a tool as important the test tube for a chemist. The Simulations are so perfect that they mimick the outcome of traditional experiments.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (RSAS) said “It is a tantalizing thought. The computer models that have been developed by the three Nobel laureates are powerful tools. Exactly how far they can advance our knowledge is for the future to decide”.
Contents of the powerpoint on Drug Delivery to Lung – Physiologial basis include:
PHYSIOLOGY Of THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
LUNG DEPOSITION AND PARTICLE SIZE
DRUG ABSORPTION VIA THE LUNG
FORMULATION AND DELIVERY OF THERAPEUTIC INHALATION AEROSOLS
METERED DOSE INHALER
DRY POWDER INHALER
NEBULIZERS
CONTROLLED DELIVERY OF DRUGS TO THE LUNG
DEEP-LUNG DELIVERY OF THERAPEUTIC PROTEINS
METHODS OF AEROSOL SIZE ANALYSIS
HOW TO USE A TURBUHALER AND METERED DOSE INHALER
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
