Best First Aid Kit – Items Checklist Supplies Contents – Types of First Aid Kits PDF

Best First Aid Kit - Items Checklist Supplies Contents - Types of First Aid Kits PDF

Hello readers. Welcome to pharmawiki.in Today we have an article listing out items first aid kits, first aid kit band ,first aid kit checklist ,first aid kit contents ,first aid kit supplies, best first aid kit ,first aid kit list ,good first aid kit ,first aid kit music group , first aid kit requirements. In addition to these we provide detailed First aid manual with every minute detailed information regarding first aid. 

Types of First Aid Kits

Home First Aid Kits

Auto & Car First Aid Kits
Burn Care Kits
Kitchen First Aid Kits
Plastic First Aid Kits
Small First Aid Kits
First Aid Kit Refills

Recreation First Aid Kits

Medical Sea Pak & Marine Kits
Sports First Aid Kits
Empty Bags & Boxes
Sports Medicine Supplies
Professional First Aid Kits
CPR Kits
Metal First Aid Kits
First Responder Kits
Personal Protection Kits
ANSI First Aid Kits
Specialty Kits

First Aid Supplies

Airway Management
Bandages
Burn Care
CPR Masks & Shields
Hazmat & Bio Hazard
Medical Instruments
Gauze & Dressings
Hot & Cold Therapy
Medical Gloves
Medical Tape
Pain Relief
Ointments & Antiseptics
Unitized Medical Supplies
Defibrillators/AEDs
Emergency Survival Supplies
Home Healthcare Supplies
Over the Counter Medicine
EMS Supplies
Personal Care
Tourniquets
Vitamins & Minerals
Clearance
Tattoo Supplies
First Aid Kits & Bags Clearance

Portable Hospital First Aid Kit
(bag with supplies)

Portable Hospital First aid Kit has bag with supplies which contains everything from butterfly bandages to large trauma dressings, allowing you to treat a wide variety of first aid emergencies. Includes CPR Microshield.

Example for Supply Assortment Portable Hospital First aid Kit

50 Bandages 1″x3″
5 Bandages 2″x4″
5 Fingertip Bandages
5 Knuckle Bandages
5 Butterfly Bandages
2 Triangular Bandage 40″ x 40″
1 Elastic Bandage 3″
10 Gauze Pads 2″ x 2″
10 Gauze Pads 4″ x 4″
1 Roll Gauze 2″ x 4yds.
2 Roll Gauze 4″ x 4yds.
2 Combine Pads 5″ x 9″
1 Multi-Trauma Dressings
25 BZK Towelettes
4 Iodine Swab Sticks

Best First Aid Kit - Items Checklist Supplies Contents - Types of First Aid Kits PDF

GSA Contract
12 Triple Antibiotic Ointments
3 Hydrocortisone Creams
4 Burn Jels 1/8 oz.
6 Antimicrobial Hand Wipes
2 Cold Packs
1 Eyewash 4 oz.
3 Eye Pads
6 Cotton-Tip Applicators 3″, 2pk.
1 Tape 1″ x 10 yds.
1 Scissors, Paramedic
1 Splinter Forceps (tweezers)
1 Penlight, disposable
1 CPR Microshield
2 Bio-Waste Bags
6 Gloves
1 First Aid Guide

CONTENT OF A FIRST AID KIT

SMALL FIRST AID BOX

1 tube silver sulfadiazine ointment 15 g
10 band aid strips
1 roller bandage 5×5 cm
1 package absorbent sterilized cotton 15 g
1 scissor 7cm (sharp/blunt edge)
10 tablets paracetamol
1 plastic mouth-to-mouth resuscitator
1 triangular bandage (90 cm)
10 safety pins
1 adhesive plaster/tape
3-4 ice cream spoons to be used as splints of finger
2 ORS sachets

MEDIUM FIRST AID BOX – Items

10 sterilized finger dressings
10 sterilized foot and hand dressings
10 sterilized large dressings
1 sterilized extra-large dressings
2 sterilized first aid field dressings
2 sterilized shell dressings
4 sterilized small burn dressings
2 sterilized large burn dressings
50 adhesive dressing strips
4 roller bandages 5 cm (5 m)
2 roller bandages 7.5 cm (5 m)
6 triangular bandages (90 cm)
1 package gauze 7.5 cm
4 package sterilized absorbent cotton 25 g
6 sterilized eye pads (st John pattern)
1 spool adhesive plaster 2.5 cm (5 m)
1 tube sliver sulfadiazine skin ointment 15 g
1 bottle savlon, detol or catavelon 112 ml
2 surgical scissors 12.5 cm (sharp/blunt edge)
1 mouth-to-mouth resuscitator
3 inflatable arm splints
3 inflatable leg splints
1 torch (2 battery cells)
10 safety pins
3-4 ice cream spoons to be used as splints of finger
2 ORS sachets
1 writing pad and pen
1 record card in plastic cover
1 first aid leaflet form

LARGE FIRST AID BOX – Contents

18 sterilized finger dressings
24 sterilized foot and hand dressings
20 sterilized large dressings
2 sterilized extra-large dressing
4 sterilized first aid field dressings
6 sterilized shell dressings
6 sterilized small burn dressings
4 sterilized large burn dressings
100 adhesive dressing strips
6 roller bandages 5 cm (5 m)
6 roller bandages 7.5 cm (5 m)
12 triangular bandages (90 cm)
1 package gauze 7.5 cm
8 package sterilized absorbent cotton 25 g
6 sterilized eye pads (st John pattern)
2 spool adhesive plaster 2.5 cm (5 m)
1 tube sliver sulfadiazine skin ointment 15 g
1 bottle savlon, detol or catavelon 112 ml
2 surgical scissors 12.5 cm (sharp/blunt edge)
1 mouth-to-mouth resuscitator
3 inflatable arm splints
3 inflatable leg splints
3-4 ice cream spoons to be used as splints of finger
2 ORS sachets
2 torch (2 battery cells)
10 safety pins
1 writing pad and pen
1 record card in plastic cover
1 first aid leaflet form

FIRST MEDICAL RESPONDER FIRST AID KIT Supplies

1 torch powered by charging dynamo (inbuilt) with battery backup (preferred)
2 pair (latex) surgical gloves non-sterile size 6.5
2 pair (latex) surgical gloves non-sterile size 7.0
2 pair (latex) surgical gloves non-sterile size 7.5
1 bottle savlon 50 ml
2 4’ crepe bandage
2 6’ crepe bandage
5 triangular bandage (cotton)
4 compressed roller bandage non-sterile 5 cm by 5 m
4 compressed roller bandage non-sterile 10 cm by 5 m
4 compressed roller bandage non-sterile 15 cm by 5 m
2 rolls surgical cotton 100 g
25 adhesive bandaged (band aid) 2.5 by 5 cm
1 roll leucoplast tape or Micropore adhesive plaster 4”
6 sterile gauze 10 by 10 cm
6 sterile eye pads
5 sterile small finger dressing pads
5 sterile large finger dressing pads
4 pieces sterile paraffin gauze
1 tube silver sulfadiazine ointment
1 mouth to mouth resuscitator
1 set inflatable splints for arms and legs
2 small scissors (s/s)
1 package glucose powder 100 g
1 small forceps
1 medium forceps
1 large forceps
12 safety pins
1 small permanent marker pen (black)
1 pencil
1 first aid kit checklist
1 first aid pamphlet
1 small pocket diary.

#FilmCoated Tablets – Film-Coating Defects Flaw Cause Remedy

#FilmCoated Tablets - Film-Coating Defects Flaw Cause Remedy

#FilmCoated Tablets – Film-Coating Defects Flaw Cause Remedy

Wrinkling or blistering

Flaw: Film detaches from tablet surface, causing blister that can burst to form wrinkles.
Cause: Gases forming on tablet surface during coating; exacerbated by poor adhesion of film to tablet surface.
Remedy: Reduce drying air temperature.

Picking

Flaw: Areas of tablet surface are not covered by film coat.
Cause: Overwet tablets stick together and pull film off surface as they move apart.
Remedy: Decrease spraying rate. Increase drying temperature.

#FilmCoated Tablets - Film-Coating Defects Flaw Cause Remedy
#FilmCoated Tablets – Film-Coating Defects Flaw Cause Remedy

Pitting

Flaw: Holes appear on tablet surface.
Melting of lubricant on tablet surface. Most common with stearic acid.
Remedy: Decrease coating temperature to below melting point of lubricant. Substitute lubricant

Blooming

Flaw: Dulling of surface, normally after prolonged storage.
Migration of low-molecularweight components of film to tablet surface.
Remedy: Decrease temperature and length of drying process. Increase molecular weight of plasticizer.

Mottling

Flaw: Uneven color distribution in film.
Inadequate pigment dispersion. Color migration, a problem with dyes and lakes rather than pigments.
Remedy: Alter suspension preparation to ensure pigment aggregates are dispersed. Replace dyes with pigments.

Orange peel

Flaw: Film surface has a rough finish resembling orange peel. Film-coat droplets are too dry or too viscous to spread on tablet surface.
Remedy: Reduce solids content of coating suspension. Reduce drying temperature. Reduce viscosity of polymer.

Bridging

Flaw: Film forms a bridge over intagliations, leaving them indistinct. High internal stresses in film relieved by pulling the film off the Surface of the intagliation.
Remedy: Increase adhesion of coat to tablet by changing core formulation. Add plasticizer or increase plasticizer concentration. Alter geometry of intagliations.

Cracking, splitting, peeling

Flaw: The film cracks on the crown of the surface or splits on the tablet edge. Can be differentiated from picking by presence of loose film around the flaw.
High stresses in the film that cannot be relieved due to the strong Adhesion of the film to the tablet surface.
Remedy: Increase plasticizer concentration. Use stronger polymer.

#Heat Distribution – Autoclave Performance Qualification Protocol (PQP) Steam/Air Cycle

Heat distribution of an empty chamber: Thermocouples should be situated according to a specific predetermined pattern. Repeatability of temperature attainment and identification of the cold spot can be achieved if the tempera­ture range is ±15°C at all monitored locations. Heat-distribution studies can also be conducted as a function of variable airflow rates

Constraining the temperature range across the loaded chamber has the goal of assuring sterilization is attained across the load, without over-processing of the filled containers.

Performance Qualification Protocol (PQP) – Steam/Air Cycle- Heat distribution

Performance Qualification Protocol (PQP) for Steam/Air Cycle in the Production Steam Steriliser (Autoclave)

The Production Steam Steriliser (autoclave), shall be used for sterilising aseptically-filled vials of selected products. To qualify the performance of the Fedegari Steam Steriliser (Autoclave) as part of a change control qualification study (refer to CR-14- xxxx “Recommence Manufacture of xxxx Acid Injection 15 mg in 1 mL ) This Performance Qualification shall be limited to demonstrating consistency and efficacy of the steam/air sterilisation cycle, using 1mL water filled into 2 mL vials. Equivalence for xxx Injection 15 mg in 1 mL product, which has been aseptically filled into 2 mL vials, shall be demonstrated in the subsequent Process Validation Study (see PQ protocol kkk). This protocol has been prepared with reference to the following regulatory guidelines: The Performance Qualification study (PQP kkk ) for the autoclave equipment, included heat distribution studies for a porous load cycle only. This document shall include heat distribution studies for the steam/air sterilisation cycle, as part of the process development for the terminal sterilisation of filled vials. The objective of this Performance Qualification, is to verify that the sterilising autoclave consistently provides the required sterility assurance, when operated under normal conditions, using standard minimum and maximum loading patterns and the specified settings: The production cycle registered for Folic Acid product is 121.1 o C for fifteen (15) minutes, to provide a minimum Fo = 8 min. The standard loading patterns shall be as follows: Minimum load Six (6) trays 2 mL vials, 340 vials per tray, across two autoclave shelves Maximum Load Nine (9) trays 2 mL vials, 340 vials per tray, across three autoclave shelves A reduced cycle shall also be run, for the standard production load patterns, to demonstrate that sub-optimal conditions also yield an acceptable level of sterility assurance. This shall be achieved by changing the timetemperature combination for the standard production load patterns to 121.1 o C, for ten (10) minutes, which is 66% of the registered sterilising condition of 121.1o C for 15 minutes.

Process Description

Sterilisation shall be by the moist heat process, using saturated steam, where F0 > 8 DT (see below). A steam-air mixture is used to control chamber pressure and assist in pressure equalisation between chamber and vials, particularly during the cool-down phase. In-process controls for the sterilisation phase of the cycle shall be temperature TE1 in the liquid product and sterilisation phase hold time. Temperature (TE 8 on the auxilliary heating device) and chamber pressure (TP01) are also required to control heating and forced cooling phases of the cycle. For the purposes of the PQ, sterilisation phase temperature and hold time data shall be processed to demonstrate that the physical characteristics of the cycle in terms of accumulated lethality (Fphys) exceed the minimum cycle design criteria (Fo), where: Fo > 8 DT for DTref = D121.1oC = 1.0 minutes and Fphys = Δt ∑10(T-Tref)/z Reference: BP Appendix XVIII “Methods of Sterilisation” and registered particulars, where Fo > 8 min is required. Biological Indicators shall be selected, to demonstrate the survival probability of a non-sterile unit (PNSU) ≤ 10–6 for both the normal production cycle (F0 ≥ 15) and a reduced cycle (F0 ≥10).

Performance Qualification Tests

Tests to be conducted and acceptance criteria are defined in the attached Performance Qualification Test Sheets.
Tests to be performed:
1 Test Instrument Calibration
2 Vacuum Leak Rate Test
3 Heat Distribution Test (empty chamber temperature mapping)
4 Heat Distribution Test (loaded chamber temperature mapping)
5 Heat Penetration studies for:
Production cycle standard loads (121.1 o
C for 15 minutes, two consecutive cycles) and for “Reduced”
cycle standard loads (121.1 o
C for 10 minutes, one cycle)
6 Biological challenge testing for standard and reduced cycle loads

Click here for complete detail 

Performance Qualification Protocol (PQP) for Steam/Air Cycle in the Production Steam Steriliser (Autoclave)heat distribution Performance Qualification Protocol for Steam Air Cycle in the Production Steam Steriliser Autoclave

Protein Homonlogy Modelling #PPT PDF for Seminars for Students & Researchers

Protein Homology Modelling PPT PDF for students researchers scholars images

Protein Homology Modelling

 

 Objectives

 

–   Individual steps involved in calculating a protein homology model.

–   Identify suitable templates for modelling.

–   Outline the principles behind ab initio protein structure prediction.

–   Describe the differences between homology modelling and ab initio structure prediction.

–   Describe the major pitfalls in protein modelling.

 

Outline

§  Protein homology modelling

–   Individual steps

–   Caveats

–   Pitfalls

 

§  Ab initio protein structure prediction

–   Threading

–   True ab initio methods

 

How Is It Possible?

§  The structure of a protein is uniquely determined by its amino acid sequence
(but sequence is sometimes not enough):

–   prions

–   pH, ions, cofactors, chaperones

 

§  Structure is conserved much longer than sequence in evolution.

–   Structure > Function >> Sequence

Protein-Homology-Modelling-PPT-PDF-for-students-researchers-scholar download

How Often Can We Do It?

§  There are currently ~47000 structures in the PDB (but only ~4000 if you include only ones that are not more than 30% identical and have a resolution better than 3.0 Å).

 

§  An estimated 25% of all sequences can be modeled and structural information can be obtained for ~50%.

Worldwide Structural Genomics

§  Complete genomes

§  Signaling proteins

§  Disease-causing organisms

§  Model organisms

§  Membrane proteins

§  Protein-ligand interactions

 

Structural Genomics in North America

§   10 year $600 million project initiated in 2000, funded largely by NIH.

§   AIM: structural information on 10000 unique proteins (now 4-6000), so far 1000 have been determined.

§   Improve current techniques to reduce time (from months to days) and cost (from $100.000 to $20.000/structure).

§   9 research centers currently funded (2005), targets are from model and disease-causing organisms (a separate project on TB proteins).

Protein Homology Modelling PPT PDF for students researchers scholars

Homology Modeling for Structural Genomics

How Well Can We Do It?

How Is It Done?

§  Identify template(s) – initial alignment

§  Improve alignment

§  Backbone generation

§  Loop modelling

§  Side chains

§  Refinement

§  Validation ß

 

Template Identification

§  Search with sequence

–  Blast

–  Psi-Blast

–  Fold recognition methods

 

§  Use biological information

 

§  Functional annotation in databases

 

§  Active site/motifs

Alignment

 

 

Improving the Alignment

Template Quality

§  Selecting the best template is crucial!

§  The best template may not be the one with the highest % id (best p-value…)

–   Template 1: 93% id, 3.5 Å resolution L

–   Template 2: 90% id, 1.5 Å resolution J

 

Evaluation of NMR Structures

What regions in the structure are most well-defined?

 

Template Quality – Ramachandran Plot

Backbone Generation

 

§  Generate the backbone coordinates from the template for the aligned regions.

 

§  Several programs can do this, most of the groups at CASP6 use Modeller:

 

http://salilab.org/modeller/modeller.html

 

Loop Modelling

§   Knowledge based:

–    Searches PDB for fragments that match the sequence to be modelled (Levitt, Holm, Baker etc.).

 

§   Energy based:

–    Uses an energy function to evaluate the quality of the loop and minimizes this function by Monte Carlo (sampling) or molecular dynamics (MD) techniques.

 

§   Combination

Loops – the Rosetta Method

 

§  Find fragments (10 per amino acid) with the same sequence and secondary structure profile as the query sequence.

 

§  Combine them using a Monte Carlo scheme to build the loop.

                                                 

                                                       David Baker et al.

Side Chains

 

 

§  If the seq. ID is high, the networks of side chain contacts may be conserved, and keeping the side chain rotamers from the template may be better than predicting new ones.

 

Predicting Side Chain Conformations

§  Side chain rotamers are dependent on backbone conformation.

 

§  Most successful method in CASP6 was SCWRL by Dunbrack et al.:

–   Graph-theory knowledge based method to solve the combinatorial problem of side chain modelling.

 

http://dunbrack.fccc.edu/SCWRL3.php

Side Chains – Accuracy

§  Prediction accuracy is high for buried residues, but much lower for surface residues

–   Experimental reasons:
side chains at the surface are more flexible.

–   Theoretical reasons:
much easier to handle hydrophobic packing in the core than the electrostatic interactions, including H-bonds to waters.

 

Refinement

§  Energy minimization

§  Molecular dynamics

 

–   Big errors like atom clashes can be removed, but force fields are not perfect and small errors will also be introduced – keep minimization to a minimum or matters will only get worse.

Error Recovery

§  If errors are introduced in the model, they normally can NOT be recovered at a later step

–   The alignment can not make up for a bad choice of template.

–   Loop modeling can not make up for a poor alignment.

§  If errors are discovered, the step where they were introduced should be redone.

Validation

§   Most programs will get the bond lengths and angles right.

§   The Ramachandran plot of the model usually looks pretty much like the Ramachandran plot of the template (so select a high quality template).

§   Inside/outside distributions of polar and apolar residues can be useful.

§   Biological/biochemical data

–    Active site residues

–    Modification sites

–    Interaction sites

Validation – ProQ Server

§  ProQ is a neural network based predictor that based on a number of structural features predicts the quality of a protein model.

 

§  ProQ is optimized to find correct models in contrast to other methods which are optimized to find native structures.

Structure Validation

§  ProCheck

http://www.biochem.ucl.ac.uk/~roman/procheck/procheck.html

 

§  WhatIf server

http://swift.cmbi.kun.nl/WIWWWI/

Homology Modelling Servers

 

§  Eva-CM performs continuous and automated analysis of comparative protein structure modeling servers

§  A current list of the best performing servers can be found at:

 

http://cubic.bioc.columbia.edu/eva/doc/intro_cm.html

 

Summary – Homology Modelling

 

§  Successful homology modelling depends on the following:

–   Template quality

–   Alignment (add biological information)

–   Modelling program/procedure (use more than one)

 

§  Always validate your final model!

Fold Recognition and Ab Initio Protein Structure Prediction

Outline

§  Threading and pair potentials

§  Ab initio methods

§  Human intervention (what kind of knowledge can be used for alignment and selection of templates?)

§  Meta-servers (the principle, 3d jury)

§  Summary of take-home messages

Threading and Pair Potentials

§   Compares a given sequence against known structures (folds).

§   By using potentials that describe tendencies observed in known protein structures.

Potentials of Mean Force

Threading Methods Today

§   Problem: No protein is average

§   Interactions in proteins cannot only be described by pairs of amino acids

§   The information in the potentials is partly captured with sequence profiles

§   Today mostly used in HYBRID approaches in combination with profile-profile based methods

§   Potentials can be used to score models based on different templates or alignments

Ab Initio Methods

 

§   Aim is to find the fold of native protein by simulating the biological process of protein folding.

§   A VERY DIFFICULT task because a protein chain can fold into millions of different conformations.

§   Use it only when no detectable homologues are available.

§   Methods can also be useful for fold recognition in cases of extremely low homology (e.g. convergent evolution).

Fragment-based Ab Initio Modelling

§  Rosetta method of the Baker group:

–   Submit sequence to a number of secondary structure predictors.

–   Compare fragments of 3 and 9 residues to library from know structures.

–   Link fragments together.

–   Use energy minimization techniques (Monte Carlo optimization) to calculate tertiary structure.

Potentials for Finding Good Models

 

§   Use of energy potentials for scoring and computing models.

§   Potentials should make models more “native-like”.

§   These can be based on contact potentials, solvation potentials, Van der Waals repulsion and attractive forces, hydrogen bond potentials.

§   Globularity/radius of gyration (ab initio).

Problems with Empirical Potentials

Human Intervention

§   The best methods use maximum knowledge of query proteins.

 

 

§   Specialists can help to find a correct template and correct alignments.

Meta-Servers

§  Democratic modeling

–   The highest score hit is often wrong.

–   Many prediction methods have the correct fold among the top 10-20 hits.

–   If many different prediction methods all have some fold among the top hits, this fold is probably correct.

 

Example of a Meta-Server

§      3DJury http://bioinfo.pl/meta/

 

–             Inspired by Ab initio modeling methods

•             Average of frequently obtained low energy structures is often closer to the native structure than the lowest energy structure

–             Find most abundant high scoring model in a list of prediction from several predictors

•             Use output from a set of servers

•             Superimpose all pairs of structures

•             Similarity score  based on # of Cα pairs within 3.5Å

–             Similar methods developed by A. Elofsson (Pcons) and D. Fischer (3D shotgun).

3DJury

§  Because it is a meta-server it can be slow.

§  If queue is too long some servers are skipped.

§  Output is only Cα coordinates.

§  What to do with the rest of the structure?

§  Use e.g. maxsprout server to build sidechains and backbone atoms.

http://www.ebi.ac.uk/maxsprout/

Summary – Ab Initio Methods

 

§   Hybrid methods using both threading methods and profile-profile alignments are the best.

§   Use only Ab initio methods if necessary and know that the quality is really low!

§   Try to use as much knowledge as possible for alignment and template selections in difficult cases.

§   Use meta-servers when you can.

Protein Homology Modelling

Thomas Blicher

Center for Biological Sequence Analysis

Learning Objectives

After this lesson you should be able to:

–   Explain the individual steps involved in calculating a protein homology model.

–   Identify suitable templates for modelling.

–   Outline the principles behind ab initio protein structure prediction.

–   Describe the differences between homology modelling and ab initio structure prediction.

–   Describe the major pitfalls in protein modelling.

 

Outline

§  Protein homology modelling

–   Individual steps

–   Caveats

–   Pitfalls

 

§  Ab initio protein structure prediction

–   Threading

–   True ab initio methods

 

How Is It Possible?

§  The structure of a protein is uniquely determined by its amino acid sequence
(but sequence is sometimes not enough):

–   prions

–   pH, ions, cofactors, chaperones

 

§  Structure is conserved much longer than sequence in evolution.

–   Structure > Function >> Sequence

 

How Often Can We Do It?

§  There are currently ~47000 structures in the PDB (but only ~4000 if you include only ones that are not more than 30% identical and have a resolution better than 3.0 Å).

 

§  An estimated 25% of all sequences can be modeled and structural information can be obtained for ~50%.

Worldwide Structural Genomics

§  Complete genomes

§  Signaling proteins

§  Disease-causing organisms

§  Model organisms

§  Membrane proteins

§  Protein-ligand interactions

 

Structural Genomics in North America

§   10 year $600 million project initiated in 2000, funded largely by NIH.

§   AIM: structural information on 10000 unique proteins (now 4-6000), so far 1000 have been determined.

§   Improve current techniques to reduce time (from months to days) and cost (from $100.000 to $20.000/structure).

§   9 research centers currently funded (2005), targets are from model and disease-causing organisms (a separate project on TB proteins).

Homology Modeling for Structural Genomics

How Well Can We Do It?

How Is It Done?

§  Identify template(s) – initial alignment

§  Improve alignment

§  Backbone generation

§  Loop modelling

§  Side chains

§  Refinement

§  Validation ß

 

Template Identification

§  Search with sequence

–  Blast

–  Psi-Blast

–  Fold recognition methods

 

§  Use biological information

 

§  Functional annotation in databases

 

§  Active site/motifs

Alignment

 

 

Improving the Alignment

Template Quality

§  Selecting the best template is crucial!

§  The best template may not be the one with the highest % id (best p-value…)

–   Template 1: 93% id, 3.5 Å resolution L

–   Template 2: 90% id, 1.5 Å resolution J

 

Evaluation of NMR Structures

What regions in the structure are most well-defined?

 

Template Quality – Ramachandran Plot

Backbone Generation

 

§  Generate the backbone coordinates from the template for the aligned regions.

 

§  Several programs can do this, most of the groups at CASP6 use Modeller:

 

http://salilab.org/modeller/modeller.html

 

Loop Modelling

§   Knowledge based:

–    Searches PDB for fragments that match the sequence to be modelled (Levitt, Holm, Baker etc.).

 

§   Energy based:

–    Uses an energy function to evaluate the quality of the loop and minimizes this function by Monte Carlo (sampling) or molecular dynamics (MD) techniques.

 

§   Combination

Loops – the Rosetta Method

 

§  Find fragments (10 per amino acid) with the same sequence and secondary structure profile as the query sequence.

 

§  Combine them using a Monte Carlo scheme to build the loop.

                                                 

                                                       David Baker et al.

Side Chains

 

 

§  If the seq. ID is high, the networks of side chain contacts may be conserved, and keeping the side chain rotamers from the template may be better than predicting new ones.

 

Predicting Side Chain Conformations

§  Side chain rotamers are dependent on backbone conformation.

 

§  Most successful method in CASP6 was SCWRL by Dunbrack et al.:

–   Graph-theory knowledge based method to solve the combinatorial problem of side chain modelling.

 

http://dunbrack.fccc.edu/SCWRL3.php

Side Chains – Accuracy

§  Prediction accuracy is high for buried residues, but much lower for surface residues

–   Experimental reasons:
side chains at the surface are more flexible.

–   Theoretical reasons:
much easier to handle hydrophobic packing in the core than the electrostatic interactions, including H-bonds to waters.

 

Refinement

§  Energy minimization

§  Molecular dynamics

 

–   Big errors like atom clashes can be removed, but force fields are not perfect and small errors will also be introduced – keep minimization to a minimum or matters will only get worse.

Error Recovery

§  If errors are introduced in the model, they normally can NOT be recovered at a later step

–   The alignment can not make up for a bad choice of template.

–   Loop modeling can not make up for a poor alignment.

§  If errors are discovered, the step where they were introduced should be redone.

Validation

§   Most programs will get the bond lengths and angles right.

§   The Ramachandran plot of the model usually looks pretty much like the Ramachandran plot of the template (so select a high quality template).

§   Inside/outside distributions of polar and apolar residues can be useful.

§   Biological/biochemical data

–    Active site residues

–    Modification sites

–    Interaction sites

Validation – ProQ Server

§  ProQ is a neural network based predictor that based on a number of structural features predicts the quality of a protein model.

 

§  ProQ is optimized to find correct models in contrast to other methods which are optimized to find native structures.

Structure Validation

§  ProCheck

http://www.biochem.ucl.ac.uk/~roman/procheck/procheck.html

 

§  WhatIf server

http://swift.cmbi.kun.nl/WIWWWI/

Homology Modelling Servers

 

§  Eva-CM performs continuous and automated analysis of comparative protein structure modeling servers

§  A current list of the best performing servers can be found at:

 

http://cubic.bioc.columbia.edu/eva/doc/intro_cm.html

 

Summary – Homology Modelling

 

§  Successful homology modelling depends on the following:

–   Template quality

–   Alignment (add biological information)

–   Modelling program/procedure (use more than one)

 

§  Always validate your final model!

Fold Recognition and Ab Initio Protein Structure Prediction

Outline

§  Threading and pair potentials

§  Ab initio methods

§  Human intervention (what kind of knowledge can be used for alignment and selection of templates?)

§  Meta-servers (the principle, 3d jury)

§  Summary of take-home messages

Threading and Pair Potentials

§   Compares a given sequence against known structures (folds).

§   By using potentials that describe tendencies observed in known protein structures.

Potentials of Mean Force

Threading Methods Today

§   Problem: No protein is average

§   Interactions in proteins cannot only be described by pairs of amino acids

§   The information in the potentials is partly captured with sequence profiles

§   Today mostly used in HYBRID approaches in combination with profile-profile based methods

§   Potentials can be used to score models based on different templates or alignments

Ab Initio Methods

 

§   Aim is to find the fold of native protein by simulating the biological process of protein folding.

§   A VERY DIFFICULT task because a protein chain can fold into millions of different conformations.

§   Use it only when no detectable homologues are available.

§   Methods can also be useful for fold recognition in cases of extremely low homology (e.g. convergent evolution).

Fragment-based Ab Initio Modelling

§  Rosetta method of the Baker group:

–   Submit sequence to a number of secondary structure predictors.

–   Compare fragments of 3 and 9 residues to library from know structures.

–   Link fragments together.

–   Use energy minimization techniques (Monte Carlo optimization) to calculate tertiary structure.

Potentials for Finding Good Models

 

§   Use of energy potentials for scoring and computing models.

§   Potentials should make models more “native-like”.

§   These can be based on contact potentials, solvation potentials, Van der Waals repulsion and attractive forces, hydrogen bond potentials.

§   Globularity/radius of gyration (ab initio).

Problems with Empirical Potentials

Human Intervention

§   The best methods use maximum knowledge of query proteins.

 

 

§   Specialists can help to find a correct template and correct alignments.

Meta-Servers

§  Democratic modeling

–   The highest score hit is often wrong.

–   Many prediction methods have the correct fold among the top 10-20 hits.

–   If many different prediction methods all have some fold among the top hits, this fold is probably correct.

 

Example of a Meta-Server

§      3DJury http://bioinfo.pl/meta/

 

–             Inspired by Ab initio modeling methods

•             Average of frequently obtained low energy structures is often closer to the native structure than the lowest energy structure

–             Find most abundant high scoring model in a list of prediction from several predictors

•             Use output from a set of servers

•             Superimpose all pairs of structures

•             Similarity score  based on # of Cα pairs within 3.5Å

–             Similar methods developed by A. Elofsson (Pcons) and D. Fischer (3D shotgun).

3DJury

§  Because it is a meta-server it can be slow.

§  If queue is too long some servers are skipped.

§  Output is only Cα coordinates.

§  What to do with the rest of the structure?

§  Use e.g. maxsprout server to build sidechains and backbone atoms.

http://www.ebi.ac.uk/maxsprout/

Summary – Ab Initio Methods

 

§   Hybrid methods using both threading methods and profile-profile alignments are the best.

§   Use only Ab initio methods if necessary and know that the quality is really low!

§   Try to use as much knowledge as possible for alignment and template selections in difficult cases.

§   Use meta-servers when you can.

#PPT PDF Technical analysis | Components |Technical arrangement | Solutions | Use Cases

Technical analysis -Technical Analysis Solutions in Software Development, Components of Technical Analysis, Manufacturing Process / Technology, Technical arrangement,

Technical Analysis:

The broad purpose of technical analysis is:

  • To ensure that the project is technically feasible in the sense that all the inputs required to set up the project are
    available
  • To facilitate the most optimal formulation of the project in terms of technology, size, location and so on.

Technical analysis is essential to ensure that necessary physical facilities required for production will be available and the best possible alternatives is selected to procure them. These are to be assessed by common sense, experience and discussions with the promoters

 

  1. Manufacturing Process / Technology

 

  1. Technical arrangement

 

  1. Size of the plant

 

  1. Product Mix

 

  1. Selection of Plant and Machinery

 

  1. Procurement of Plant and Machinery

 

  1. Plant lay out

 

  1. Location of the plant.

 

  1. Land

 

  1. Raw Material

 

  • Market

 

  1. Labour

 

  1. Utilities such as water, Power, fuel etc.

 

  1. Effluent disposal

 

  • Transportation

 

  1. Schedule of Project Implementation

 

  1. Manufacturing Process / Technology

 

  • If a product can be manufactured by using alternative raw materials with alternative process routes, a comparative study should be done to choose the most suitable process depending upon the quality of product required, its end use.

  • If a product is to be manufactured by a particular process for the first time in the country, necessary study should be done about the success of the process in other countries.’

Appropriateness of Technology

It refers to those methods of production which are suitable to local economic, social and cultural conditions
Technology should be evaluated in terms of:
Whether the technology utilizes local raw materials?
Whether the technology utilizes local man power?
Whether the goods and services produced cater to the basic needs?
Whether the technology protects ecological balance?
Whether the technology is harmonious with social and cultural conditions?

 

  1. Technical arrangement

 

  • Technical arrangement made to obtain technical know how required for the proposed project.

  • Support to be provided by technical collaborators in planning and designing of  the project

  • Selection and procurement of equipment, installation and operation of the plant, training etc.

  • Collaborator has agreed to provide the benefits of research and development.

  • Any restriction imposed by collaborator (Exports etc.)

 

  1. Size of the plant

 

Size of the plant depends on the manufacturing process, availability of raw material, capital investment, size of the market.

 

Size of the plant or capacity can be expressed in one of the following terms:

 

1 With Respect to the output

( quantity of finished product)

Pulp and paper, Cement, Steel, etc.
2 With  Respect to input

( quantity of main raw material used)

Sugar Mill, Cottonseed expeller unit, Solvent extraction plant.etc.
3 With respect to number or machines Power looms, Spinning Mills, Textile Mills etc.

 

The concept of economic size of the plant changes with the changes in technology, price structure, availability of raw material, demand of the product and other circumstances.

 

 

  1. Product Mix

 

Product mix or product range depends upon market requirement of certain items may have to be done in different sizes and quality to suit different consumers.

If plant may have flexibility to change product mix according to changes in the market conditions, such flexibility may need additional investment, its impact on the viability of the project be analysed.

 

  1. Selection of Plant and Machinery

 

  • Selection of plant and machinery should be done according to manufacturing process and size of the unit. Different stages of manufacturing process should have proper balance of capacity.

 

  • A product has to pass through 4 stages and the capacity of proposed machinery for each stage is as under

 

  Production Cycle  
Raw Material  

Stages

I II III IV Finished Goods
Capacity 90 80 60 80

The total capacity of the plant in above case will be considered as 60 units because the capacity in the third stage of process is only 60 units.

  • Equipments for utilities (Power, water, fuel etc) should also have sufficient capacity to meet the requirements of main plant and machinery.

  • Adequate provisions should also be made for tools and spares.

  1. Procurement of Plant and Machinery

 

  • The machinery suppliers should be decided keeping in view the quality of the machine, the reputation of the suppliers, delivery schedule, payment terms , performance guarantee and other relevant matters.

  • It is not always necessary to procure machinery from suppliers whose quotations are the lowest.

  • If the project is being implemented on turnkey basis , the reputation of EPC contractor, main terms and conditions of contract to be analyzed.

  • If promoters proposes to import second hand machinery a certificate from chartered Engineer giving details of its history, present performance, valuation, economic life and suitability of second hand machinery should be obtained.

 

  • In order to have uninterrupted production, it should be ensured that satisfactory arrangements for repair have been made and necessary spare parts will be available in time.

 

  1. Plant layout

 

  • Proper plant lay out can reduce manufacturing cost by savings time and money .

  • Plant lay out be done in such a way that minimum time is taken in handling equipment , raw material, consumables, goods –in –process and finished goods.

 

  1. Location of the plant.

 

  1. Land
    • Land should be sufficient for the proposed project and the future expansion plans.

  • Load bearing capacity of the land should be ascertained.

  • Proposed land should be non agriculture and approved for Industrial use.

 

  1. Raw Material
    • The requirement of raw material at full capacity should be ascertained and it should be ensured that necessary raw material will be available at reasonable price.

  • If raw material is bulky and difficult to transport, it is better to locate the plant near the source of raw material.

  • Regular supply of raw material is very necessary for the successful operation of the plant.

 

  • Market
    • While deciding location of the project, a comparative study regarding transportation of raw material and finished products should also be done.

 

  • If transportation of finished products is more difficult than its raw material, it may be better to set up project near to the market.

 

  1. Labour
    • Sometimes skilled labour is not available at a particular place. If labour has to be obtained from outside ,arrangements to provide housing facilities analyzed.

  1. Utilities such as water , Power, fuel etc.

 

  • Arrangement for utilities power, water, fuedl etc to be ensured. If there is shortage of power supply alternative arrangement be way of Gen Sets etc be ensured.

 

  1. Effluent disposal

 

  • The problem of effluent differs from industry to industry depending on nature and quantity of effluent.

  • It should be ensured that necessary treatment is provided the effluent unit.

 

  • Transportation

 

  • If the proposed site is not connected with main road, an approach road may have to be laid from the site to the main road.

  • The quality of road may be decided keeping in view the quantum of goods to be transported.

  • If the unit proposes to buy their own vehicles cost benefit analysis be made, by calculating deprecation, interest and other expenses of maintaining vehicle compared to vehicles engaged on hire basis.

 

Schedule of Project Implementation

 

  • The Project Evaluation and Review Technique ( PERT) or Critical Path Method (CPM) helps in proper planning , scheduling and controlling various activities essential for the execution of the project.

  • All possible activities from project identification to commencement of production should be listed.

  • It should be ensued that all the activities have been included and the time schedule given by the promoter is reasonable.

  • Arrangement should be made to procure necessary raw material inputs like raw material, power, labour etc appropriate time so that plant does not remain idle and the implementation may commence soon as the installation of the plant is completed.

 

 

 

 

Technical Analysis Solutions in Software Development

Many a software project has failed due to an incomplete or inaccurate analysis process, especially technical analysis. Technical Analysis is a key step while developing a software application. It can be useful to-

  • Confirm with the customer that we have gathered all business requirements accurately, and begin with designing and building the application after approval from the customer.
  • It can be used by the Designers and Developers as a reference when building the application.
  • It can be used by the client to verify that the final application actually matches what was initially agreed upon.

Components of Technical Analysis

There are two parts to Technical Analysis – drafting an Application Specification Document and generating Use Cases.

An Application Specification Document is usually derived from the Requirements Documentation from a Business Analyst. This document briefly specifies various features of the application, details parameters of how the application will be built, etc.

A sample structure of an Application Specification Document for a typical Web Development project would be as follows:

  1. Introduction
    • Background
    • Purpose
    • Scope
    • Definitions, Acronyms and Abbreviations
    • References
    • Overview
  2. Overall Description
    • Use-Case Model Survey
    • Assumptions and Dependencies
  3. Specific Requirements
  4. Non-functional Requirements
    • Browser Compatibility
    • Layout
    • Graphics and Web Design
    • Resolution
    • Log History Analysis
    • Cookies
    • SMTP Server
    • Secure Sockets Layer
    • Accessibility
    • Performance
  5. Payment Schedule

Depending on the project, you may need to elaborate or discard a few of these points but generally, this is how a Software Requirements Specification is laid out. It shows the intended behavior of the project and behavior can be expressed in the form of tasks, functions or services

technical-analysis-components-technical-arrangement-technical-analysis-components-technical-arrangement-solutions-use-cases-solutions-in-software-development technical-analysis-components-technical-arrangement-technical-analysis-components-technical-arrangement-solutions-use-cases-solutions-in-software-development

Use Cases

Use Cases are documents that help capture and detail requirements of the project. They are usually written in casual English for easy comprehension but when required, Flow Charts, Pseudo-Code, etc may be used to explain features in the Use Case. Use Cases are now a widespread practice that originally came from the Object-Oriented Programming Community.

Use Cases define goal-based relationships between actors and various functions in the application. An actor is a term that comes from UML. They are the external entities who use the application – visitors, administrators, staff, an external interacting application, etc. There are usually two types of actors – a Primary actor and a Secondary actor. A Primary Actor is one who requires assistance of the system for their goal to be satisfied. A Secondary Actor is one who the system needs assistance from in order to help Primary Actors achieve their goal.

Every Use Case needs to describe in detail the necessary interaction required between various actors and the application in order to deliver a service that satisfies an actor’s goal. A Use Case also needs to detail any possible alternate flows that could help an actor satisfy his goal. Alternate flows also need to describe methods that could lead to a failure of the application due to errors, etc.

System Internals are not part of a Use Case. A Use Case merely describes the actor, an actor’s possible interaction with the application, optionally the goal that the actor may have set out to achieve and various ways of achieving it.

There are many formats for Use Cases. A sample Use Case for a login feature would be as follows:

Technical analysis -Technical Analysis Solutions in Software Development, Components of Technical Analysis, Manufacturing Process / Technology, Technical arrangement,

Introduction to Project Management Power Point Presentation PPT PDF

Introduction to Project Management Power Point Presentation PPT PDF

Project management is explained here in simple ways. This will surely help you to give a presentation on this particular topics like What is project? , Characteristics of Projects, What is Project Management? , History of Project Management, Advantages of Using Formal Project Management, The Triple Constraint concept, Project Stakeholders, Project Management Knowledge Areas,Project Management Tools and Techniques.

 

Introduction to Project Management

What Is a Project?’

A project is “a temporary endeavor undertaken to accomplish a unique product or service”
Attributes of projects
unique purpose
temporary
require resources, often from various areas
should have a primary sponsor and/or customer
involve uncertainty

Characteristics of Projects

Single unit
Relatively low frequency
Defined starting points and ending points
Defined outcomes / goals
Complex interrelated tasks, often transcending functional boundaries
Require special management tools
What is a project?

What is Project Management?

Project management is “the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities in order to meet project requirements” (PMI)

History of Project Management

Some people argue that building the Egyptian pyramids was a project, as was building the Great Wall of China

Most people consider the Manhattan Project to be the first project to use “modern” project management
Project Management Statistics
The U.S. spends $2.3 trillion on projects every year, an amount equal to one-quarter of the nation’s gross domestic product.
The world as a whole spends nearly $10 trillion of its $40.7 trillion gross product on projects of all kinds.
More than sixteen million people regard project management as their profession; on average, a project manager earns more than $82,000 per year.

Advantages of Using Formal Project Management

  • Better control of financial, physical, and human resources
  • Improved customer relations
  • Shorter development times
  • Lower costs
  • Higher quality and increased reliability
  • Higher profit margins
  • Improved productivity
  • Better internal coordination
  • Higher worker morale

The Triple Constraint

Every project is constrained in different ways by its
Scope goals: What is the project trying to accomplish?
Time goals: How long should it take to complete?
Cost goals: What should it cost?
It is the project manager’s duty to balance these three often competing goals
The Triple Constraint of Project Management

Reasons for performance Improvements

“The reasons for the increase in successful projects vary. First, the average cost of a project has been more than cut in half. Better tools have been created to monitor and control progress and better skilled project managers with better management processes are being used. The fact that there are processes is significant in itself.“*

Project Stakeholders

Stakeholders are the people involved in or affected by project activities
Stakeholders include
the project sponsor and project team
support staff
customers
users
suppliers
opponents to the project

Project Management Knowledge Areas

Knowledge areas describe the key competencies that project managers must develop
4 core knowledge areas lead to specific project objectives (scope, time, cost, and quality)
4 facilitating knowledge areas are the means through which the project objectives are achieved (human resources, communication, risk, and procurement management)
1 knowledge area (project integration management) affects and is affected by all of the other knowledge areas

Project Management Tools and Techniques

Introduction to Project Management Power Point Presentation PPT PDF
Project management tools and techniques assist project managers and their teams in various aspects of project management
Some specific ones include
Project Charter, scope statement, and WBS (scope)
Gantt charts, network diagrams, critical path analysis, critical chain scheduling (time)
Cost estimates and earned value management (cost)

How Project Management Relates to Other Disciplines

Much of the knowledge needed to manage projects is unique to the discipline of project management
Project mangers must also have knowledge and experience in
general management
the application area of the project

The Project Management Profession

The job of IT Project Manager is in the list of the top ten most in demand IT skills
Professional societies like the Project Management Institute (PMI) have grown tremendously
Project management research and certification programs continue to grow

Project Management Certification

PMI provides certification as a Project Management Professional (PMP)
A PMP has documented sufficient project experience, agreed to follow a code of ethics, and passed the PMP exam
The number of people earning PMP certification is increasing quickly
PMI and other organizations are offering new certification programs

Ethics in Project Management

Ethics is an important part of all professions
Project managers often face ethical dilemmas
In order to earn PMP certification, applicants must agree to the PMP code of professional conduct

Project Management Applications

Project management applies to work as well as personal projects
Project management applies to many different disciplines (IT, construction, finance, sports, event planning, etc.)
Project management skills can help in everyday life
Project Management Framework
Project life cycle
Projects have beginnings, middle periods and endings.
Where you are in the project life cycle determines what you should be doing and what alternatives are available
Iron law of a life cycle: problems downstream are symptoms of neglect upstream.
Project life cycle

Purpose of project life cycle:

tells us what needs to be done when – upstream problems can only be solved upstream
overcome iron law of a life cycle
Project life cycle phases:
concept
definition / design
execution / implementation
close-out
Project life cycle: concept phase
Clarify customer requirements
Identify all stakeholders
Finalize project objectives
Define key performance indicators
Generate and evaluate alternative solutions
Determine best solution & evaluate risk
Detailed plan for definition phase
Provisional base line
Life cycle: definition phase
Develop work breakdown structure (WBS)

Which contractor(s)?

Obtain cost and schedule estimates (estimating)
Develop detailed plan for implementation phase & preliminary plan for rest of life
Develop preliminary plan for rest of life
Prepare provisional baseline: decision-making milestone meeting
Life cycle: Implementation phase
Contract out or in – each task of implementation phase WBS
Monitor and control project performance
Launch corrective action whenever needed

Life cycle: close-out phase

Test all deliverables
Transfer to owner
Close project accounts
Reassign project team
Conduct project post-mortem
Alternative life cycle phase names: feasibility, preliminary design, detailed design, construction, commissioning
Decision-making milestones
Authenticate – accepts the recommendations of the previous project phase
Authorise – Customer permits the next phase to start
Project life cycle
Base lines
Formal change control
Performance measurement
Project life cycle = {activity phases, decision-making milestones, baselines}
Differentiate between phase & process
Project risk = certainty of project outcome
Project risk decreases and customer investment increases as the project progress
Terminology
Milestone
Specific major events to be completed at certain times in the project
Work breakdown structure (WBS)
Method by which a project is divided into tasks and subtasks
Gantt chart
Graphical technique that shows the amount of time required for each activity and the sequence in which activities are to be performed
Project life cycle
Project Formulation

Points to be considered:

The type and level of industrial activity

To match his financial resources with the
required amount

Prepare a nice project report

Broad Heads of Project Report
General Information
Project Description
Market potential
Capital Costs and Sources of Finance
Assessment of Working Capital
Other Financial Aspects

Economic and Social Vairables

General Information
Name and address of the entrepreneur
Qualification, Experience and other capabilities of entrepreneur
Reference of industry analysis
Constitution and organization structure of
enterprise
Registration details with Directorate of
Industries/ Registrar of FirmsUtility of the products

Project Description

Location
Raw Material
Skilled Labour
Power
Fuel
Water
Waste disposal
Communication systems

Project Description (cont.)
Transport
Other common facilities
List of Machinery
Capacity of the Plant
Technology
Manufacturing Process
Balancing of Plant
Quality Control
Research & Development
Market Potential
Total Demand & Supply
Estimation of Cost & Price
Marketing Strategy
After sales service
Seasonality
Transportation of Goods

Capital costs and Source of Finance

Capital Costs
Land and Building
Plant & Machinery
Other Miscellaneous Assets
Preliminary expenses
Contingency expenses
Margin on Working Capital

Source of Finance
Capital
Subsidy/ Incentives
Unsecured Loan
Loan from friends and relatives
Soft Loan
Term Loan

Assessment of Working Capital Requirement
Planning for working capital requirement
Estimate of working capital requirement

Other Financial Aspects

Projected Profit & Loss Account
Projected Balance Sheet
Projected Cash Flow Statement Break-Even Analysis Profitability Ratio Return on Investment Debt:Equity Ratio Debt Service Coverage Ratio

Economic and Social Variables
Promoting Employment

Import Substitution

Promoting ancillaries

Development of the area

Financial Appraisal
Capital Cost of Project
Source of Finance
Financial Projections
Ratio Analysis
Break-Even Point
Discounted Cash Flow

Technical Appraisal

Manufacturing Process – Technology
Technical Arrangements
Size of the Plant
Product Mix
Selection of Plant & Machinery
Procurement of Plant & Machinery
Location of the Project
Schedule of Project Implementation

Commercial Appraisal – Marketing

Demand Techniques of Forecasting
Supply – Depth of Competition
Pricing Policy
Life cycle of the product
Brand Name for the Product
Packing & Transport
Distribution Channels
Sales Promotion
Sources of Market information
Publications Useful to study various aspects of marketing

Management Appraisal
Qualities of an Entrepreneur

project management power point presentation ppt pdf notes

Various Forms of Organisation

Organisational Set-Up

Management Problems

Thank you

Adenosine Classes Function Dose side effects Pharmacodynamics Brand name Structure

Adenosine Classes Function Dose side effects Pharmacodynamics Brand name Structure

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that regulates many physiological functions which includes respiratory regulation, neural function ,platelet aggregation, hormonal action ,lymphocyte differentiation, vascular tone, negative chronotropic  and dromotropic effect on heart , also mediates inhibition of neurotransmitter release and lipolysis . These physiological function have been largely revised.(1),(2)

             These functions are mediated through different adenosine receptor. There are four subtypes of AR-A1,A2A-AR,A2B-AR,A3-AR  each of these receptors has distinct tissue distribution and effector coupling. They belong to super family of G-protein coupled receptors (3).among these  receptors A1,A3AR1 are closely related  based on their sequence similarity while A2A,A2B AR also similarly related. A1 and A3 are primarly couple to G(subi) –family of G-protein.A2A and A2B are mostly coupled to GS  like G- protein. Each of these receptors plays an essential role in responding to adenosine in central nervous system(4) ,regulating pain (5) . cerebral blood flow(6). Basal gangalia function (7) respiration (8) and sleep (9.) thus these receptors can be therapeutic  targets for several diseases. Development of more selective agonists and antagonists  for adenosine receptor subtype provide aclass of therapeutics for treatment of numerous human diseases such as apain (10).  parkinsons disease (11)  asthma(12)   huntingtons disease(13).A search for new leads acting on specific adenosine acting on specific adenosine receptors may provide a key for novel therapeutics

        .          A2A-AR subtype is linked to  and G(S) and G(OLF) protein and up on activation the intracellular levels of Camp  are increased . the  expression  A2A AR expression is higest in brain, .spleen,thymus,leucocyte and blood platelets and intermediate in heart lungs and blood vessel.(14)(15)..Crystal structure of A2A AR was determined in 2008,physiological functions  A2A AR are regulation of sensori motors integration in basal ganglia., inhibition of platelet aggregation and polymorpho nuclear leucocytes, vasodilation protection  against ischemic damage, stimuation of sensory nerve activity . (17)  these wide range of functions implies their significant role in the body and use of chemical moieties to alter these function in disease state (may be agonists or antagonists).

          A2A AR antagonist have their role in parkinsons disease, (18) keep regulations (19) controlling alcohol abuse (20) invivo receptor imaging (21)  there can also be used an anti depressant drug. (22) A2 AR agonists can be a treatment for ischemic renal injure (23) paraoxysmal supro ventricular tachycardia. They can be used as vasodilators (24) antithrombic agent (25)  antinflamatory (26) . they can also be used in treatment of asthma( 27), arthritis(28) sepsis (29) inflamatory bowel disease (30) and reduced skin pressure  ulcer formation (26) and accelerator  wound healing,(31)

Structure of Adenosine

Adenosine Classes Function Dose side effects Pharmacodynamics Brand name Structure

             In view of the role of A2A AR in these diseases afurther study in to the subject may reveal beneficial (facts) information for the treatment of such dieases. These receptors became agood targeting strategy  to bring out novel therapeutics for effective treatment of dieases..So a 3D QSAR study was taken up on the ligands of A2A receptors to identify a new lead molecule based on pharmacophore model generated.

REFRENCES:

(1) K. A. Jacoboson, Z.G.Gao, Adenosine receptors as therapeutic targets Nal.Rev., Drug Discovery 5(2006) 247-264

(2)M.P.Abbracchio, G.BUrnstock, A.verkhasatsky, H. Zimmermann, purinergic signalling in nervous system an over view ,Trends Neurosci. 32 (2009) 19-29

(3)B.B. Fredholm, G.Arsian, L.Halldner, B.kull, G.Schutte, W.Wasserman, structure and function of adenosine receptors and their genes , Naunyn – Schmiedebergs Arch.pnaarmacol.362 (2006) 19-29

(4)(a) . T.V Dunwiddie, S.A .Masina Annu . Rev.Neurosci 24,31(2001)

     (b). K.A.Jacobson, Z.G.Gao , Nat .Rev Drug Discover.5,247 (2006)

(5) J.sawynok,x.J.Liv,Drog Neurobio . 69,313 (2003)
(6) Y.Shietal, J.Cereb Blood Flow Method . 28,111 (2008)

(7) M.A.Schwarzchild , L.Agnati, K. Fure, J. Fichsn, M.M orelli , Trends Neurobiol 29. 647 (2006)

(8) S.Lahiri, CH.Nitchell.D.Reigade , A.Roy , N.s.chemiack , Respir. Physiol. Nenrobiol. 157 ,123 (2007)

(9) R.Basheer,R.E.Strecker,MM.Thatkar,R.W.M.Carley Prog. Neurobiol.73,379 (2009)

(10)J,Sawynok,X.J.Liu. Prpg.Neurobio.69,313

(11)A.H.Schapira.et.al, Nat.Rev.Drug.Discor.5,845 (2006)
(12)A. Brow, D.Spina, C.p.page, Br.J.Pharmacol.153,(suppli),5446(2008)

(13)D.Blum, R.Hourez, M.C.Galar, P.Popoli,S.N.Schiftmann, Lancet Neurol.2,366(2003)

(14)F.Meng, G.X.Xic, D.Chalmeri, C.Margan,S.J.Watson,Jr.,H.Akil,Cloning and expression of the A2a  receptors from guinea pig brain Neuro chem 66(1996) 613-621

(15)R.A.Deter freud,M.Maccollin,J.Gusella,J.S.Flink Characterization and expression of the human A2a adenosine receptors gene, Neuro chem. 66(1996)362-368.

(16)Veli-Pekka Jaakola, Mark.T.Grifftin,Micheal, A.Hanson, Vadim cherezov , ellen y.t chien, J.Robert lane ,Adlioan, P.L.Jzerman, Raymond c.sterenes, the 2.6 Angstroun Crystal structure of a human A2a Adenosine  receptor Bound to an Antagonist

(17)B.B.Fredholm, Adenosine, an endogenous distress signal, modulates tissue damage and repair not cell death and differentiation (2007) 14, 1315-1323

(18)Michael A .Schwarzschild, Luigi Agnati, Kjell Fuxe ,Jiang – fanchen and micaela morelli, Targetting Adenosine A2a receptors in parkinsons disease Trends in neurosciences Vol.29 No.11

(19) Satoh, S., Matsumura, H. & Hayaishi, O. Involvement of adenosine A2A receptor in sleep promotion. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 351, 155–162 (1998

(20) Yao, L. et al. dimers mediate synergy of dopamine D2 and adenosine A2 receptor-stimulated PKA signalling and regulate ethanol consumption. Cell 109, 733–743 (2002).

(21) Moresco, R. M. et al. In vivo imaging of adenosine A2A receptors in rat and primate brain using [11C]SCH442416. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 32,405–413 (2005).

(22) El Yacoubi, M. et al. Absence of the adenosine A2A receptor or its chronic blockade decrease ethanol withdrawal-induced seizures in mice. Neuropharmacology 40, 424–432 (2001).

(23) Okusa, M. D. et al. A2A adenosine receptor-mediated inhibition of renal injury and neutrophil adhesion. Am.J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 279, F809–F818 (2000).

(24) Fredholm, B. B., IJzerman, A. P., Jacobson, K. A., Klotz, K. N. & Linden, J. International Union of Pharmacology. XXV. Nomenclature and classification of adenosine receptors. Pharmacol. Rev. 53,527–552 (2001).

(25) Varani, K. et al. Dose and time effects of caffeine intake on human platelet adenosine A2A receptors:functional and biochemical aspects. Circulation 102,285–289 (2000)

(26) Peirce, S. M., Skalak, T. C., Rieger, J. M.,Macdonald, T. L. & Linden, J. Selective A2A adenosine

receptor activation reduces skin pressure ulcer

formation and inflammation. Am. J. Physiol. Heart

Circ. Physiol. 281, H67–H74 (2001).

(27) Fozard, J. R., Ellis, K. M., Villela Dantas, M. F.,

Tigani, B. & Mazzoni, L. Effects of CGS 21680, a

selective adenosine A2A receptor agonist, on allergic

airways inflammation in the rat. Eur. J. Pharmacol.

438, 183–188 (2002).

(28) Montesinos, M. C. et al. Adenosine A2A or A3 receptors

are required for inhibition of inflammation by

methotrexate and its analog MX-68. Arthritis Rheum.

48, 240–247 (2003

(29) Sullivan, G. W., Fang, G., Linden, J. & Scheld, W. M. A2A adenosine receptor activation improves survival in mouse models of endotoxemia and sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. 189, 1897–1904 (2004).

(30) Odashima, M. et al. Activation of A2A adenosine receptor attenuates intestinal inflammation in animal models of inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 129, 26–33 (2005).

(31) Montesinos, M. C. et al. Wound healing is accelerated by agonists of adenosine A2 (Gs-linked) receptors. J. Exp. Med. 186, 1615–1620 (1997).

adenosine class, adenosine function, adenosine dose, adenosine side effects, adenosine pharmacodynamics, adenosine sleep, adenosine brand name, adenosine structure

Schedule Drugs – List Examples PPT PDF – Scheduled 1 2 3 4 5 India Australia Canada

Schedule Drugs - List Examples PPT PDF - Scheduled 1 2 3 4 5 India Australia Canada

Schedule Drugs – List Examples PPT PDF – Scheduled 1 2 3 4 5 India Australia Canada

SCHEDULE I

All drugs nonresearch use illegal under federal law.These most dangerous drugs with high potential for abuse and high risk of dependence.

Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol)
Narcotics:
Heroin and many nonmarketed synthetic narcotics
Hallucinogens:
LSD
MDA, STP, DMT, DET, mescaline, peyote, bufotenine, ibogaine,
psilocybin, phencyclidine (PCP; veterinary drug only)
Marijuana
Methaqualone

Schedule Drugs - List Examples PPT PDF - Scheduled 1 2 3 4 5 India Australia Canada

SCHEDULE II

(No telephone prescriptions, no refills.)2
Opioids:
Opium
Opium alkaloids and derived phenanthrene alkaloids: codeine,
morphine, (Avinza, Kadian, MSContin, Roxanol), hydromorphone
(Dilaudid ), oxymorphone (, Exalgo), oxycodone (dihydroxycodeinone, a component of Oxycontin, Percodan, Percocet, Roxicodone,
Tylox)
Designated synthetic drugs: meperidine (Demerol), methadone,
levorphanol (Levo-Dromoran), fentanyl (Duragesic, Actiq,
Fentora), alfentanil (Alfenta), sufentanil (Sufenta), remifentanil
(Ultiva), tapentadol (Nycynta)

Stimulants:
Coca leaves and cocaine
Amphetamine
Amphetamine complex (Biphetamine)
Amphetamine salts (Adderall)
Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine, Procentra)
Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse)
Methamphetamine (Desoxyn)
Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, Methylin, Daytrana, Medadate)
Above in mixtures with other controlled or uncontrolled drugs
Cannabinoids:
Nabilone (Cesamet)
Depressants:
Amobarbital (Amytal)
Pentobarbital (Nembutal)
Secobarbital (Seconal)

SCHEDULE III

(Prescription must be rewritten after 6 months or five refills.)
Opioids:
Buprenorphine (Buprenex, Subutex )
Mixture of above Buprenorphine and Naloxone (Suboxone)
The following opioids in combination with one or more active nonopioid ingredients, provided the amount does not exceed that shown:
Codeine and dihydrocodeine: not to exceed 1800 mg/dL or 90 mg/
tablet or other dosage unit
Dihydrocodeinone (hydrocodone in Hycodan, Vicodin, and
Lortab): not to exceed 300 mg/dL or 15 mg/tablet
Opium: 500 mg/dL or 25 mg/5 mL or other dosage unit (paregoric)
Stimulants:
Benzphetamine (Didrex)
Phendimetrazine (Bontril)
Depressants:
Schedule II barbiturates in mixtures with noncontrolled drugs or in
suppository dosage form
Butabarbital (Butisol)
Ketamine (Ketalar)
Cannabinoids:
Dronabinol (Marinol)
Anabolic Steroids:
Fluoxymesterone (Androxy)
Methyltestosterone (Android, Testred, Methitest)
Nandrolone decanoate (Deca-Durabolin) Non US
Nandrolone phenpropionate (Durabolin) Non US
Oxandrolone (Oxandrin), Oxymetholone (Androl-50)
Stanozolol (Winstrol),
Testolactone (Teslac),
Testosterone and its esters

SCHEDULE IV

(Prescription must be rewritten after 6 months or five refills; differs from
Schedule III in penalties for illegal possession.)
Opioids:
Butorphanol (Stadol)
Difenoxin 1 mg + atropine 25 mcg (Motofen)
Pentazocine (Talwin)
Stimulants:
Armodafinil (Nuvigil)
Diethylpropion (Tenuate) not in US
Modafinil (Provigil)
Phentermine (Ionamin, Adipex-P)
Depressants:
Benzodiazepines
Alprazolam (Xanax)
Chlordiazepoxide (Librium)
Clonazepam (Klonopin)
Clorazepate (Tranxene)
Diazepam (Valium)
Estazolam (ProSom)
Flurazepam (Dalmane)
Halazepam (Paxipam)
Lorazepam (Ativan)
Midazolam (Versed)
Oxazepam (Serax)
Prazepam (Centrax)
Quazepam (Doral)
Temazepam (Restoril)
Triazolam (Halcion)
Chloral hydrate (Somnote)
Eszopiclone (Lunesta)
Meprobamate (Equanil, Miltown, etc)
Methobarbital (Mebaral)
Methohexital (Brevital)
Paraldehyde
Phenobarbital
Zaleplon (Sonata)
Zolpidem (Ambien)

SCHEDULE V

(As any other nonopioid prescription drug)
Codeine: 200 mg/100 mL
Difenoxin preparations: 0.5 mg + 25 mcg atropine
Dihydrocodeine preparations: 10 mg/100 mL
Diphenoxylate (not more than 2.5 mg and not less than 0.025 mg of
atropine per dosage unit, as in Lomotil)
Ethylmorphine preparations: 100 mg/100 mL
Opium preparations: 100 mg/100 mL
Pregabalin (Lyrica)
Pyrovalerone (Centroton, Thymergix)

Motivational & Inspirational Story – Canadian Dream- Pharma Boost

Motivational & Inspirational Story - Canadian Dream- Pharma Boost

Motivational & Inspirational Story from a young Canadian Dreamer Mr. Vivek is published for all my readers on pharmawiki. This is a Canada Story from the oldest Canadian dreamer. If you have time and need motivation. You are at the right place. Mr. Vivek with a great heart he has accepted to share HIStory with us and tells that life can come up with odds and obstacles but its you who need to put effort and never dishearten till you achieve your dream.

Motivational Story

My dream for Canada started in 2002. Yes. 18 years back during college days.

My Timelines

Oct 2002 – TOEFL.

Dec 2003 – Student Visa approved.

Jan 2004 – Travelled to Vancouver, Canada, for the first time as a student to study an MBA at the University of Phoenix, Burnaby campus. I was a typical spoilt brat. I didn’t perform well in studies and only managed to complete a few courses for the next two years.

Sep 2005 – IELTS General for applying for PR. I don’t remember the scores.

Jan 2006 – Came back to India for a personal visit. I was hoping that I will come back to complete the studies and apply PR quickly.

Mar 2006 – My visa to re-enter Canada was declined. The reason is that my previous stay in Canada is not satisfactory. Which means I didn’t show much progress to complete the course.

Apr 2006 – Reapplied and Visa rejected again for the same reason.

My dreams were demolished. Those days I didn’t have the knowledge, courage and financial backup to challenge Immigration decisions for my visa refusals. Frustrated and convinced myself that my dream for Canada is almost done and dusted. It took three months for me to recover.

Jul 2006 – Started working in BPO in Chennai.

May 2008 – Started working in Service Desk for the NOC 2171.

Nov 2008 – Married to my Girlfriend.

2010 – A random dream of me, wife and daughter landing in Vancouver airport. Maybe, this is the first instinct that I have never forgotten Canada.

May 2010 – Silver Fern Job search Visa (Openwork Permit) for Newzealand was approved and I didn’t travel. Not sure if I can get in Job in NZ. Maybe, if I would have gone, I got a job, applied PR and got my citizen there. It didn’t happen.

Motivational & Inspirational Story - Canadian Dream- Pharma Boost

Oct 2010 – Started a new Job as ITIL Manager in HP. Noc 2171.

Jan 2014 – I declined a job in Saudi Arabia.

Nov 2014 – Travel to Honk Kong for a couple of times to deliver training. My first abroad travel in almost 8.5 years. I think it is the breaking point of what I am now. I refreshed my thoughts and realigned myself about what my family and I needed. Motivated me to feel and live abroad life.

In the meantime, I Progressed well in my career; Completed ITIL Expert and PRINCE2 certifications become a trainer in IT service management space. Also, I have worked with 12+ training institutes as a part-time trainer and consultant on top of a full-time job. The role involved lots of travelling within India. Life was hectic and fun then.

My abroad Life again

Mar 2015 – Accepted a job in Malaysia for a decent salary. I want to leave India and gain some abroad experience.

May 2015 – I declined an excellent offer from Mercedez Benz Bangalore.

Jul 2015 – Resigned from HP. This is more of a dream job for me. HP was terrific with tons of benefits. But, I had to take the calculated risks. I came out of my comfort zone with wife support.

Aug 2015 – Started a new job in Malaysia.

Nov 2015 – Calculated risk paid off – Client wanted me in Singapore. The salary multiplied three times within three months. Can’t complain. The money I earned in Singapore and Malaysia is the basis of future Canadian settlement.

Dec 2015 – I again randomly dreamt of landing at Vancouver airport. Instinct no 2.

Canada on the cards again

Wife and I discussed about Canada and chances. Already I’m a failure student from Canada. That was in my head. We put my failure aside and starting looking for new opportunities. We were not getting sufficient CRS points. We decided to make her a student, and I will support her. I was looking for an entry.

May 2017 – Luckily wife was able to crack a Ph.D. admission after a couple of failures in Royal Roads University Victoria on her own. At this point, I knew we are getting back to Canada for sure. FYI – we haven’t started the Visa process yet.

The reason is there are only a handful of Ph.D. admissions in Canada (700 to 1000 for a year) and they have to find a compelling reason to reject our visa unless there is criminality or medical issues.

My CRS was 327 only.

Jun 2017 – Some of the consultants recommended us to apply for all visas separately. First Student Visa for Wife. Then after six months. Openwork permit for me. And visit visa for daughter.

I went with my instincts and applied for all visa together. We both wrote a decent SOP and showed modest funds to support our stay in Canada.

Aug 2017 – As luck favoured again – All our visas are approved. Wife student Visa – Me Open work permit – Kid Visitor visa. The reason I call lucky is No GIC account, only half tuition in the account. God’s grace. Can’t say anything more.

I was still working in Singapore.

With the work permit in hand – Applied 500+ jobs in indeed and Linkedin. Was able to crack an interim 1-year temporary position in BC Pensions, Victoria through a Skype interview. I came close to another job. But they didn’t release the offer letter.

17 Nov 2017 – Resigned my Job in SG to travel to Canada.

Canada 2nd Innings

28 – Nov -2017 – Landed in Vancouver almost 12 years later. What a dream day for me. I released the law of attraction and energy is working for me to place me in Canada.

Dec 2017 – I started my first job in Canada in BC pensions as a Business System Analyst. Noc 2171. Hoping to gain Canadian experience to get PR.

Jun 2018 – IELTS 1st attempt after years L-7, R-5.5, S-7, W-6.5. This is more of a failed attempt. Anyway, the positive part is with this score. I am qualified for BC PNP, at least.

Jul 2018 – Resigned the temporary job as another company offered me with good pay. Later, I realized that it is a fake offer letter. I didn’t work for the next three months. Luckily, through a lawyer. I got three-month salary compensation from them. That is when I am surprised to understand that the law works the same for everyone. It doesn’t matter you are a student, work permit, PR or citizen. Most countries support only their citizens and PRs.

Sep 2018 – declined a job offer in Dubai because I will not gain Canadian experience. They interviewed only for a three-month position and later offered for a permanent position.

Oct 2018 – Started New job as a Global Change Manager in Paysafe, Montreal. Noc 2171. Was living alone in Montreal. The family was in Vancouver.

March 2019 – IELTS again – L-8, R-7, W-6, S-8.

The curious case of 327 CRS to 1044 CRS

May 2019 – Another twist in the deal.

Express Entry Profile created – After Canadian experience and decent IELTS score. I enjoyed the short happiness that my CRS is 494. I could claim 50 points for a valid permanent job offer. Later through online research, I leant my LMIA does not approve my job offer so I cannot claim 50 points. I was stuck at 444. Not good enough to get ITA. Another set back.

God showed another mercy. A tech company (with is my present employer) in Vancouver wanted to hire me at any cost. I negotiated my terms only to support BC PNP. Trust me; I did not negotiate a single dollar on my salary part although they offered a competitive package. They agreed and joined the company. I m back in Vancouver now. Noc 2171.

2-June-2019 – Created BC PNP Profile.

4-June-2019 – BC PNP ITA under Tech Pilot scheme.

8-Jun-2019 – Submitted Documents online and paid 700 dollars.

10-June-2019 – I got an interview call from BC PNP tech staff. Within a couple of hours, I got an email from CIC account- my profile is updated with 600 points. Now CRS is 1044. This is a surprise, bcoz they are like super fast. Approved my case within 24 business hours. Considering June 9th was a Sunday.

12- Jun-2019 – ITA from CIC.

4-Jul-2019 – AOR.

The tedious process. All documents for my wife and me. Travel history, police clearance from all countries I lived, ECA, medicals, work experience letters, IELTS, LOE etc.

Aug 2019 – The wife had to quit a Ph.D. because she couldn’t cope up with the expected standards. The standard is high. I’ve seen her English writing improved drastically to the point she can write English novels with substantial vocabulary. Still, it was very challenging for her and cannot continue her studies.

19-Aug 2019 – Medical Passed.

14-Sep-2019 – BC PNP gave a nomination letter to convert my open work permit to a closed work permit. The idea is to convert her student permit to an open work permit which is dependent on my closed work permit.

26-Sep 2019 – At Peace Arch border, we did flag poling and later converted our permits as we liked with the guidance of an IRCC consultant. I took a bit of legal advice from a genuine consultant. Before, I use to underestimate the value of an IRCC consultant.

I and my wife, I complemented each other well. When we landed, She was the principal student applicant and I was her dependent. Now I am on the primary closed permit holder and she was my dependent.

11-Oct-2019 – GCMS notes received. Notes showed that I did not submit the responsibilities of any of the companies I worked in. Quickly gathered responsibilities letters for all the companies.

2-Nov-2019 – Submitted Responsibility letters using the webform.

Long silence.

23-Jan-2020 – Finally, PPR email.

13- Feb-2020 – CoPR.

14-Feb-2020 – My wife and daughter became Permanent Residents at Peace Arch Border. Did a flag pole to re-enter Canada.

Today, I m 39 and planning for a marvellous career ahead in Canada.

I was on a Student permit, Open work permit, Closed work permit and now on a Permanent Resident visa and hopefully a Canadian citizen one day.

Lessons I’ve learnt

1. Age is just a number, even for express entry profile ( If you have the right attitude and approach).

2. You don’t have to score 8777 perfect IELTS score.

3. For NOC 2171, there are ample opportunities in Canada. I was approached by 10+ companies/consultants to take an interview with them in the last eight months. Manage a creative resume, cover letter and LinkedIn profile.

All the best to everyone. Dreams Do come true.

Thank you so much Vivek for the true inspiring story. Share your story with us today which can help thousands to get in pace with the life race. 

INTRA-UTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES Family Planning India

INTRA-UTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE
The intra-uterine device (IUD) is the second most commonly used family planning method, after voluntary female sterilization.
The IUD is one of the best methods of contraception during lactation because of its high efficacy and its lack of effect on breast milk or infant growth.

Generations of  intra-uterine device

• First: inert devices e.g., Lippes loop
• Second: all the copper-containing devices
• Third: hormonal devices e.g., Progestasert and Mirena
Mechanism of Action
The precise mechanism of action of the IUD is still unknown.

1. New studies prove that the IUDs act mostly by preventing sperms from fertilizing ova. The primary mechanisms of action of copper-releasing IUD are by impeding sperm transport and inhibiting their capacity to
fertilize ova.
2. All unmedicated and copper devices produce an inflammatory or foreign body reaction, which in turn causes cellular and biochemical changes in the endometrium and in uterine and tubal fluids. Prostaglandin level
increase and the fibrinolytic mechanism needed for hemostasis are affected. Numerous polymorphs, giant cells, mononuclear cells, plasma cell, and macrophages appear in the endometrium as well as in the uterine
and tubal fluids. These cells engulf or consume sperms and ova by the process of phagocytosis and thus prevent fertilization. Besides, normal cyclical changes in the endometrium may be delayed or deranged by
the inflammatory reaction and liberation of prostaglandins, making it inhospitable for implantation of the blastocyst.
3. When inserted postcoitally, IUDs can prevent implantation of the fertilized ovum.
4. Copper causes more intense inflammatory reaction and interferes with enzymes in the uterus, the amount of DNA in endometrial cells, glycogen metabolism, and estrogen uptake by the uterine mucosa.
5. Sperm motility, capacitation, and survival are also affected by the biochemical changes in the cervical mucus produced by copper.
6. IUDs containing progesterone prevent sperm passing through the cervical mucus and maintain high progesterone level and, in consequence, relatively low estrogen levels locally. They, thereby, keep the
endometrium in a state in which implantation is hindered.
• In Cu T 200 the copper portion has an exposed surface area of 200 mm2.
• The Multiload Cu 250 has a recommended life span of 3 years, and the Multiload Cu 375 of 5 years.,😁
Copper T 380A (Ca T 380A), Ca T 380 Ag, and Cu T 380S (Slimline)
They are T-shaped, look almost alike, and are made of polyethylene impregnated with barium sulfate. They have 314
mm2 copper wire on the vertical stem and two 33 mm2 copper sleeves on each of the two transverse arms. The wire in the 380 Ag has a sliver core. The approved life span of the Cu T 380A is 10 years.
Progesterone IUD (Progestasert)
The vertical shaft is fitted with a capsule containing 38 mg of progesterone dispensed in silicone oil. It delivers progesterone to the uterus at the rate of 65 μg/day.
The US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA)-approved effective life is only 1 year.
The contraceptive effectiveness of the progestasert is similar to that of Cu IUDs; it reduces menstrual loss, but has
to be replaced every year, and possibly increases the risk of ectopic pregnancy (as it decreases tubal motility).
Mirena/LNG IUD/LNG 20/Levonova/LNG IUS
Mirena contains a total of 52 mg levonorgestrel (LNG). LNG is released into the uterine cavity at a rate of approximately 20 μg/day. The LNG IUD is about as effective as sterilization, but, unlike sterilization, it is easily reversible.
These devices act mainly by local progestogenic effects and act for up to 5 years. Pearl index after 5 years is 0.09/100
women-years (most effective reversible contraception available today). The ovarian functions are not disturbed
by LNG 20.

Advantages and Noncontraceptive Benefits
Health benefits of Mirena include:

1. Reduction of blood loss, which benefits patients with anemia and dysfunctional uterine bleeding
2. Reduction of pain and dysmenorrhea in endometriosis and adenomyosis
3. Beneficial effect on fibroids
4. The advantage that IUDs introduced 6 weeks after delivery do not influence lactation or affect infant growth and
development.
5. Can be used in prevention and treatment of endometrial hyperplasia.
6. Decreases the risk of endometrial cancer.
7. Decreases the risk of PID and hence protects against ectopic pregnancy.

Drawbacks

1. Irregular bleeding and oligomenorrhea, which happen quite commonly in the first 3–4 months
2. Amenorrhea, which affects up to 20–50% cases by 1 year. But this is not at all harmful as it is a progesteroneinduced amenorrhea.
3. Difficulty of introduction, needing local anesthesia in many cases
4. Slightly higher rates of minor side effects such as acne, dizziness, headaches, breast tenderness, nausea and
vomiting, and weight gain
Pearl Index of IUD
IUDs can be divided into three groups according to the pregnancy rate, indicating their contraceptive efficacy:

1. Group I (pregnancy rates greater than 2.0 per 100 women-year): Lippes loop, Cu 7 T 200
2. Group II (pregnancy rates less than 2.0 but more than 1 per 100 women-year): Nova T, ML Cu 250, and Cu T
220C
3. Group III (pregnancy rates less than 1 (mostly less than 0.5) per 100 women-year): Cu T 380A, Cu T 380S, ML Cu 375, and LNG 20

RECENT ADVANCES

PP IUCD (Post Placental IUCD) Insertion
IUCD can be inserted immediately after vaginal delivery or during LSCS before closure of the uterus.
WHO Category 4: absolute contraindications for use of IUD:
• Immediate postseptic abortion
• Pregnancy
• Vaginal bleeding suspicious/unexplained
• Puerperal sepsis
• Cervical cancer
• Endometrial cancer
• Uterine anomaly
• Pelvic tuberculosis
• Current pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)/Current STDs
• Malignant trophoblast disease
• Current STDs
• Uterine fibroids with distortion of uterine cavity
NOTE: Nulliparity, heart disease, fibroids with no cavity distortion and past history of PID are relative contraindications.
• Insertion of ML Cu 250 and ML Cu 375: This is done by the withdrawal method without plunger.
Complications of IUD
1. Increased bleeding is the greatest disadvantage of IUDs and, along with pain, accounts for their removal in
2–10 per 100 users in the first year.
2. Misplaced IUD: If the device is detected inside the peritoneal cavity, it should be removed as early as possible.
Copper devices produce irritative reactions, inflammations, and a lot of adhesions.
Copper devices in the peritoneal cavity usually need laparotomy for their removal, as they produce a good amount
of adhesions, although it is possible to remove them by laparoscopy Perforation occurs rarely, not more than 1.2 per
1000 insertions.
The device may migrate into the peritoneal cavity or become embedded in the uterine musculature. Most perforations occur at the time when insertion technique is followed.
The copper T devices are known to produce omental masses and adhesions, and progesterone devices can cause
intraperitoneal bleeding and should always be removed urgently.
3. Infections: Doxycycline 200 mg or, better still, azithromycin 500 mg, administered orally 1 h before insertion,
reduces chance of infection.
The presence of actinomyces has been found to increase with duration of use, especially after use of inerttailed devices.
The infection in IUD users can be prevented by (a) proper selection of patients, excluding those cases who have
active infection or are likely to have infection from the husband or other partners, (b) prophylactic antibiotic
course, and (c) proper disinfection and the practice of aseptic techniques.
4. Pregnancy: As soon as pregnancy is confirmed, the IUD should be removed, if it can be done easily, to
reduce the risk of pelvic infection and miscarriage—the most frequent complication of pregnancy with an
IUD in place.
If the IUD cannot be removed easily, it can be left in situ.
There is no risk at all of any congenital malformations if IUD is left in situ.
5. Ectopic pregnancy: Several studies, including a WHO multicenter study, have found that IUD users are 50% less
likely to have ectopic pregnancy than women using no contraception. The chance of ectopic pregnancy in IUD
users is rare and varies from 0.25 to 1.5 per 1000 women-year. However, when pregnancy occurs, the chance of ectopic
pregnancy is higher (about 30%) than in general population (about 0.5–0.8%) of all pregnancies.
Newer IUDS
Cu-Fix IUD (Flexi-Gard): This is frameless IUD consisting of six copper sleeves (300 mm2 of copper) strung on a
surgical polypropylene nylon thread, which is knotted at the upper end.
Cu Safe IUD: The device has a T-shaped radio-opaque plastic body. The ends of the flexible transverse arms are
inwardly bent, providing a nonirritating, fundus-seeking mechanism.