Pharmacology MCQ for NEET PG GPAT PHARMACIST Nursing Questions with Answers pdf Book

Pharmacology MCQ for NEET PG GPAT PHARMACIST Nursing Questions with Answers pdf Book

Today Pharmawiki is here with very important 40+ Pharmacology multiple choice questions along with answers. These are published especially for all our pharmacy students who are ready to take up different competitive exams like NEET PG GPAT PHARMACIST qualifying examinations. These questions are also very helpful to all the students and professionals of Nursing to take up different examinations for their career growth. This article specifically provides questions with answers pdf Book at the end for our readers convenience. You can click on the right side and download the entire copy to study easily. 

Pharmacology MCQ for Anti Cancer Chemotherapy Drugs

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS. AGENTS FOR CHEMOTHERAPY OF CANCER

All of the following antiviral drugs are the analogs of nucleosides, EXCEPT:

a) Acyclovir

b) Zidovudine

c) Saquinavir

d) Didanozine

Tick the drug, a derivative of adamantane:

a) Didanozine

b) Rimantadine

c) Gancyclovir

d) Foscarnet

Tick the drug, a derivative of pyrophosphate:

a) Foscarnet

b) Zidovudine

c) Vidarabine

d) Acyclovir

Tick the drug, inhibiting viral DNA synthesis:

a) Interferon

b) Saquinavir

c) Amantadine

d) Acyclovir

Tick the drug, inhibiting uncoating of the viral RNA:

a) Vidarabine

b) Rimantadine

c) Acyclovir

d) Didanozine

Tick the drug, inhibiting viral reverse transcriptase:

a) Zidovudine

b) Vidarabine

c) Rimantadine

d) Gancyclovir

Tick the drug, inhibiting viral proteases:

a) Rimantadine

b) Acyclovir

c) Saquinavir

d) Zalcitabine

Tick the drug of choice for herpes and cytomegalovirus infection treatment:

a) Saquinavir

b) Interferon alfa

c) Didanozine

d) Acyclovir

136

Tick the drug which belongs to nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors:

a) Zidovudine

b) Vidarabine

c) Nevirapine

d) Gancyclovir

All of the following antiviral drugs are antiretroviral agents, EXCEPT:

a) Acyclovir

b) Zidovudine

c) Zalcitabine

d) Didanozine

Tick the drug used for influenza A prevention:

a) Acyclovir

b) Rimantadine

c) Saquinavir

d) Foscarnet

Tick the drug used for HIV infection treatment, a derivative of nucleosides:

a) Acyclovir

b) Zidovudine

c) Gancyclovir

d) Trifluridine

Tick the antiviral drug which belongs to endogenous proteins:

a) Amantadine

b) Saquinavir

c) Interferon alfa

d) Pencyclovir

Tick the drug which belongs to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors:

a) Didanosine

b) Gancyclovir

c) Nevirapine

d) Vidarabine

All of the following antiviral drugs are anti-influenza agents, EXCEPT:

a) Acyclovir

b) Amantadine

c) Interferons

d) Rimantadine

Pharmacology MCQ for NEET PG GPAT PHARMACIST Nursing Questions with Answers pdf Book

Tick the unwanted effects of zidovudine:

a) Hallucinations, dizziness

b) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea, insomnia

c) Hypertension, vomiting

d) Peripheral neuropathy

Tick the unwanted effects of intravenous acyclovir infusion:

a) Renal insufficiency, tremors, delerium

b) Rash, diarrhea, nausea

c) Neuropathy, abdominal pain

d) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea, insomnia

Tick the drug that can induce peripheral neuropathy and oral ulceration:

a) Acyclovire

b) Zalcitabine

c) Zidovudine

d) Saquinavir

Tick the unwanted effects of didanozine:

a) Hallucinations, dizziness, insomnia

b) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea

c) Hypertension, vomiting, diarrhea

d) Peripheral neuropathy, pancreatitis, diarrhea, hyperuricemia

Tick the unwanted effects of indinavir:

a) Hypotension, vomiting, dizziness

b) Nephrolithiasis, nausea, hepatotoxicity

c) Peripheral neuropathy, pancreatitis, hyperuricemia

d) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea

Tick the drug that can induce nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain and rhinitis:

137

a) Acyclovire

b) Zalcitabine

c) Zidovudine

d) Saquinavir

All of the following effects are disadvantages of anticancer drugs, EXCEPT:

a) Low selectivity to cancer cells

b) Depression of bone marrow

c) Depression of angiogenesis

d) Depression of immune system

Rational combination of anticancer drugs is used to:

a) Provide synergism resulting from the use of anticancer drugs with different mechanisms combination

b) Provide synergism resulting from the use of anticancer drugs with the same mechanisms combination

c) Provide stimulation of immune system

d) Provide stimulation of cell proliferation

Tick the anticancer alkylating drug, a derivative of chloroethylamine:

a) Methotrexate

b) Cisplatin

c) Cyclophosphamide

d) Carmustine

Tick the anticancer alkylating drug, a derivative of ethylenimine:

a) Mercaptopurine

b) Thiotepa

c) Chlorambucil

d) Procarbazine

Tick the group of hormonal drugs used for cancer treatment:

a) Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

b) Glucocorticoids and gonadal hormones

c) Gonadal hormones and somatotropin

d) Insulin

Tick the anticancer alkylating drug, a derivative of alkylsulfonate:

a) Fluorouracil

b) Carboplatin

c) Vinblastine

d) Busulfan

Tick the anticancer drug of plant origin:

a) Dactinomycin

b) Vincristine

c) Methotrexate

d) Procarbazine

Action mechanism of alkylating agents is:

a) Producing carbonium ions altering protein structure

b) Producing carbonium ions altering DNA structure

c) Structural antagonism against purine and pyrimidine

d) Inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA synthesis

Tick the anticancer drug, a pyrimidine antagonist:

a) Fluorouracil

b) Mercaptopurine

c) Thioguanine

d) Methotrexate

Methotrexate is:

a) A purine antagonist

b) A folic acid antagonist

c) An antibiotic

d) An alkylating agent

Tick the antibiotic for cancer chemotherapy:

a) Cytarabine

b) Doxorubicin

c) Gentamycin

d) Etoposide

Fluorouracil belongs to:

a) Antibiotics

b) Antimetabolites

c) Plant alkaloids

d) Bone marrow growth factor

Tick the action mechanism of anticancer drugs belonging to plant alkaloids:

a) Inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA synthesis

b) Cross-linking of DNA

c) Mitotic arrest at a metaphase

d) Nonselective inhibition of aromatases

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS. AGENTS FOR CHEMOTHERAPY OF CANCER

General contraindications for anticancer drugs are:

a) Depression of bone marrow

b) Acute infections

c) Severe hepatic and/or renal insufficiency

d) All of the above

Action mechanism of methotrexate is:

a) Inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase

b) Activation of cell differentiation

c) Catabolic depletion of serum asparagine

d) All of the above

Tick the anticancer drug belonging to inorganic metal complexes:

a) Dacarbazine

b) Cisplatin

c) Methotrexate

d) Vincristine

Tick the indication for estrogens in oncological practice:

a) Leukemia

b) Cancer of prostate

c) Endometrial cancer

d) Brain tumors

Enzyme drug used for acute leukemia treatment:

a) Dihydrofolate reductase

b) Asparaginase

c) Aromatase

d) DNA gyrase

All of the following drugs are derivatives of nitrosoureas, EXCEPT:

a) Carmustine

b) Vincristine

c) Lomustine

d) Semustine

Tick the group of drugs used as subsidiary medicines in cancer treatment:

a) Cytoprotectors

b) Bone marrow growth factors

c) Antimetastatic agents

d) All of the above

Tick the estrogen inhibitor:

a) Leuprolide

b) Tamoxifen

c) Flutamide

d) Anastrozole

Tick the antiandrogen drug:

a) Flutamide

b) Aminoglutethimide

c) Tamoxifen

d) Testosterone

Tick the drug belonging to aromatase inhibitors:

a) Octreotide

b) Anastrozole

c) Flutamide

d) Tamoxifen

Tick the drug belonging to gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists:

a) Leuprolide

b) Tamoxifen

c) Flutamide

d) Anastrozole

Pharmacology MCQ for Anti Cancer Chemotherapy Drugs

Pharmacology MCQ for Anti Cancer Chemotherapy Drugs

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Pharmacodynamics – Dose Response relationship- Terms Definitions PDF

Pharmacodynamics - Dose Response relationship- Terms Definitions PDF

Pharmacodynamics. We exactly know what pharmacodynamics is. It involves how the drugs act on target cells to alter cellular function. Let us discuss Dose Response relationship in this article. The exact relationship between the dose and the response depends on the biological object under observation and the drug employed is called Dose Response relationship.

Dose Response relationship

When a logarithm of dose as abscissa and responses as ordinate are constructed graphically, the “S” shaped or sigmoid type curve is obtained.
The lowest concentration of a drug that elicits a response is minimal dose, and the largest concentration after which further increase in concentration will not change the response is the maximal dose.

1. Graded dose effect:

As the dose administered to a single subject or tissue increases, the pharmacological response also increases in graded fashion up to ceiling effect.
– It is used for characterization of the action of drugs. The concentration that is required to produce 50 % of the maximum effect is termed as EC50 or ED50.

2. Quantal dose effect:

It is all or none response, the sensitive objects give response to small doses of a drug while some will be resistant and need very large doses. The quantal dose effect curve is often characterized by stating the median effective dose and the median lethal dose.

Median lethal dose or LD50:

This is the dose (mg/kg), which would be expected to kill one half of a population of the same species and strain.

Median effective dose or ED50:

This is the dose (mg/kg), which produces a desired response in 50 per cent of test population.

Pharmacodynamics - Dose Response relationship- Terms Definitions PDF

Therapeutic index:

It is an approximate assessment of the safety of the drug. It is the ratio of the median lethal dose and the median effective dose. Also called as therapeutic window or safety.
Herapeutic index (T. I) = The larger the therapeutic index, the safer is the drug.

Penicillin has a very high therapeutic index, while it is much smaller for the digitalis preparation.

D. Structural activity relationship 
The activity of a drug is intimately related to its chemical structure. Knowledge about the chemical structure of a drug is useful for:
(i) Synthesis of new compounds with more specific actions and fewer adverse
reactions
(ii) Synthesis of competitive antagonist and
(iii) Understanding the mechanism of drug action.
Slight modification of structure of the compound can change the effect completely.

Download the pdf of this article here to read:

Pharmacodynamics – Dose Response relationship- Terms Definitions PDF

These are few very important terms you need to understand in pharmacodynamics.

 

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ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION PPT PDF 10 Routes of Drug Administration

Which drug administration route is fastest?,

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION: The possible routes for drug entry into the body. Most drugs can be administered by a variety of routes. The choice of appropriate route in a given situation depends both on drug as well as patient related factors. Mostly common sense considerations, feasibility and convenience dictate the route to be used. Generally routes of drug administration refer to the right path or the required route through which a drug has to be administered into the body to obtain maximum benefit. Here is the list of  5, 10+ outes of drug administration.

  1. oral
  2. sublingual
  3. rectal
  4. nasal
  5. ocular
  6. otic
  7. inhalation
  8. nebulization
  9. transdermal
  10. Subcutaneous (under the skin)
  11. Intramuscular (in a muscle)
  12. Intravenous (in a vein)
  13. Intrathecal (around the spinal cord

Factors governing choice of route

  1. Physical and chemical properties of the drug (solid/ liquid/gas; solubility, stability, pH, irritancy).
  2. Site of desired action—localized and approachable or generalized and not approachable.
  3. Rate and extent of absorption of the drug from different routes.
  4. Effect of digestive juices and first pass metabolism on the drug.
  5. Rapidity with which the response is desired (routine treatment or emergency).
  6. Accuracy of dosage required (i.v. and inhalational can provide fine tuning).
  7. Condition of the patient (unconscious, vomiting).

Routes of Administration can be broadly divided into those for

(a) Local action and (b) Systemic action.

LOCAL ROUTES

These routes can only be used for localized lesions at accessible sites and for drugs whose systemic absorption from these sites is minimal or absent. Thus, high concentrations are attained at the desired site without exposing the rest of the body. Systemic side effects or toxicity are consequently absent or minimal. For drugs (in suitable dosage forms) that are absorbed from these sites/routes, the same can serve as systemic route of administration, e.g. glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) applied on the skin as ointment or transdermal patch. The local routes are:

  1. Topical

This refers to external application of the drug to the surface for localized action. It is often more convenient as well as encouraging to the patient. Drugs can be efficiently delivered to the localized lesions on skin, oropharyngeal/ nasal mucosa, eyes, ear canal, anal canal or vagina in the form of lotion, ointment, cream, powder, rinse, paints, drops, spray, lozengens, suppositories or pesseries. Nonabsorbable drugs given orally for action on g.i. mucosa (sucralfate, vancomycin), inhalation of drugs for action on bronchi (salbutamol, cromolyn sodium) and irrigating solutions/jellys (povidone iodine, lidocaine) applied to urethra are other forms of topical medication.

  1. Deeper tissues

Certain deep areas can be approached by using a syringe and needle, but the drug should be in such a form that systemic absorption is slow, e.g. intra-articular injection (hydrocortisone acetate in knee joint), infiltration around a nerve or intrathecal injection (lidocaine), retrobulbar injection (hydrocortisone acetate behind the eyeball).

  1. Arterial supply

Close intra-arterial injection is used for contrast media in angiography; anticancer drugs can be infused in femoral or brachial artery to localise the effect for limb malignancies.

SYSTEMIC ROUTES

The drug administered through systemic routes is intended to be absorbed into the blood streamand distributed all over, including the site of action, through circulation

  1. Oral

Oral ingestion is the oldest and commonest mode of drug administration. It is safer, more convenient, does not need assistance, noninvasive, often painless, the medicament need not be sterile and so is cheaper. Both solid dosage forms (powders, tablets, capsules, spansules, dragees, moulded tablets, gastrointestinal therapeutic systems— GITs) and liquid dosage forms (elixirs, syrups, emulsions, mixtures) can be given orally.

Limitations of oral route of administration

  • Action of drugs is slower and thus not suitable for emergencies.
  • Unpalatable drugs (chloramphenicol) are difficult to administer; drug may be filled in capsules to circumvent this.
  • May cause nausea and vomiting (emetine).
  • Cannot be used for uncooperative/unconscious/ vomiting patient.
  • Absorption of drugs may be variable and erratic; certain drugs are not absorbed (streptomycin).
  • Others are destroyed by digestive juices (penicillin G, insulin) or in liver (GTN, testosterone, lidocaine).
  1. Sublingual (s.l.) or buccal

The tablet or pellet containing the drug is placed under the tongue or crushed in the mouth and spread over the buccal mucosa. Only lipid soluble and non-irritating drugs can be so administered. Absorption is relatively rapid—action can be produced in minutes. Though it is somewhat inconvenient, one can spit the drug after the desired effect has been obtained. The chief advantage is that liver is bypassed and drugs with high first pass metabolism can be absorbed directly into systemic circulation. Drugs given sublingually are—GTN, buprenorphine, desamino-oxytocin.

  1. Rectal

Certain irritant and unpleasant drugs can be put into rectum as suppositories or retention enema for systemic effect. This route can also be used when the patient is having recurrent vomiting or is unconscious. However, it is rather inconvenient and embarrassing; absorption is slower, irregular and often unpredictable, though diazepam solution and paracetamol suppository are rapidly and dependably absorbed from the rectum in children. Drug absorbed into external haemorrhoidal veins (about 50%) bypasses liver, but not that absorbed into internal haemorrhoidal veins. Rectal inflammation can result from irritant drugs. Diazepam, indomethacin, paracetamol, ergotamine and few other drugs are some times given rectally.

  1. Cutaneous

Highly lipid soluble drugs can be applied over the skin for slow and prolonged absorption. The liver is also bypassed. The drug can be incorporated in an ointment and applied over specified area of skin. Absorption of the drug can be enhanced by rubbing the preparation, by using an oily base and by an occlusive dressing.

 

Transdermal therapeutic systems (TTS)

 

These are devices in the form of adhesive patches of various shapes and sizes (5–20 cm2) which deliver the contained drug at a constant rate into systemic circulation via the stratum corneum (Fig. 1.2). The drug (in solution or bound to a polymer) is held in a reservoir between an occlusive backing film and a rate controlling micropore membrane, the under surface of which is smeared with an adhesive impregnated with priming dose of the drug. The adhesive layer is protected by another film that is to be peeled off just before application. The drug is delivered at the skin surface by diffusion for percutaneous absorption into circulation. The micropore membrane is such that rate of drug delivery to skin surface is less than the slowest rate of absorption from the skin. This offsets any variation in the rate of absorption according to the properties of different sites. As such, the drug is delivered at a constant and predictable rate irrespective of site of application. Usually chest, abdomen, upper arm, lower back, buttock or mastoid region are utilized. Transdermal patches of GTN, fentanyl, nicotine and estradiol are available in India, while those of isosorbide dinitrate, hyoscine, and clonidine are marketed elsewhere. For different drugs, TTS have been designed to last for 1–3 days. Though more expensive, they provide smooth plasma concentrations of the drug without fluctuations; minimize interindividual variations (drug is subjected to little first pass metabolism) and side effects. They are also more convenient— many patients prefer transdermal patches to oral tablets of the same drug; patient compliance is better. Local irritation and erythema occurs in some, but is generally mild; can be minimized by changing the site of application each time by rotation. Discontinuation has been necessary in 2–7% cases.

 

  1. Inhalation

Volatile liquids and gases are given by inhalation for systemic action, e.g. general anaesthetics. Absorption takes place from the vast surface of alveoli—action is very rapid. When administration is discontinued the drug diffuses back and is rapidly eliminated in expired air. Thus, controlled administration is possible with moment to moment adjustment. Irritant vapours (ether) cause inflammation of respiratory tract and increase secretion.

  1. Nasal

The mucous membrane of the nose can readily absorb many drugs; digestive juices and liver are bypassed. However, only certain drugs like GnRH agonists and desmopressin applied as a spray or nebulized solution have been used by this route. This route is being tried for some other peptide drugs like insulin, as well as to bypass the bloodbrain barrier.

  1. Parenteral

Conventionally, parenteral refers to administration by injection which takes the drug directly into the tissue fluid or blood without having to cross the enteral mucosa. The limitations of oral administration are circumvented. Drug action is faster and surer (valuable in emergencies). Gastric irritation and vomiting are not provoked. Parenteral routes can be employed even in unconscious, uncooperative or vomiting patient. There are no chances of interference by food or digestive juices. Liver is bypassed. Disadvantages of parenteral routes are—the preparation has to be sterilized and is costlier, the technique is invasive and painful, assistance of another person is mostly needed (though self injection is possible, e.g. insulin by diabetics), there are chances of local tissue injury and, in general, parenteral route is more risky than oral.

The important parenteral routes are:

(i) Subcutaneous (s.c.)

The drug is deposited in the loose subcutaneous tissue which is richly supplied by nerves (irritant drugs cannot be injected) but is less vascular (absorption is slower than intramuscular). Only small volumes can be injected s.c. Self-injection is possible because deep penetration is not needed. This route should be avoided in shock patients who are vasoconstricted— absorption will be delayed. Repository (depot) preparations that are aqueous suspensions can be injected for prolonged action. Some special forms of this route are:

 (a) Dermojet

In this method needle is not used; a high velocity jet of drug solution is projected from a microfine orifice using a gun like implement. The solution passes through the superficial layers and gets deposited in the subcutaneous tissue. It is essentially painless and suited for mass inoculations.

(b) Pellet implantation

The drug in the form of a solid pellet is introduced with a trochar and cannula. This provides sustained release of the drug over weeks and months, e.g. DOCA, testosterone.

(c) Sialistic (nonbiodegradable) and biodegradable implants

Crystalline drug is packed in tubes or capsules made of suitable materials and implanted under the skin. Slow and uniform leaching of the drug occurs over months providing constant blood levels. The nonbiodegradable implant has to be removed later on but not the biodegradable one. This has been tried for hormones and contraceptives (e.g. NORPLANT).

 (ii) Intramuscular (i.m.)

The drug is injected in one of the large skeletal muscles—deltoid, triceps, gluteus maximus, rectus femoris, etc. Muscle is less richly supplied with sensory nerves (mild irritants can be injected) and is more vascular (absorption of drugs in aqueous solution is faster). It is less painful, but self injection is often impracticable because deep penetration is needed. Depot preparations (oily solutions, aqueous suspensions) can be injected by this route. Intramuscular injections should be avoided in anticoagulant treated patients, because it can produce local haematoma.

(iii) Intravenous (i.v

.) The drug is injected as a bolus (Greek: bolos–lump) or infused slowly over hours in one of the superficial veins. The drug reaches directly into the blood stream and effects are produced immediately (great value in emergency). The intima of veins is insensitive and drug gets diluted with blood, therefore, even highly irritant drugs can be injected i.v., but hazards are—thrombophlebitis of the injected vein and necrosis of adjoining tissues if extravasation occurs. These complications can be minimized by diluting the drug or injecting it into a running i.v. line. Only aqueous solutions (not suspensions, because drug particles can cause embolism) are to be injected i.v. and there are no depot preparations for this route. Chances of causing air embolism is another risk. The dose of the drug required is smallest (bioavailability is 100%) and even large volumes can be infused. One big advantage with this route is—in case response is accurately measurable (e.g. BP) and the drug short acting (e.g. sodium nitroprusside), titration of the dose with the response is possible. However, this is the most risky route—vital organs like heart, brain, etc. get exposed to high concentrations of the drug.

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION 10 Fastest routes

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION 10 Fastest routes PDF

routes of administration PPT

(iv) Intradermal injection

The drug is injected into the skin raising a bleb (e.g. BCG vaccine, sensitivity testing) or scarring/multiple puncture of the epidermis through a drop of the drug is done. This route is employed for specific purposes only.

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Pharmaceutical Chemistry B Pharmacy Second Year Notes || D Pharmacy Material PDF

Pharmaceutical Chemistry B Pharmacy Second Year Notes || D Pharmacy Material PDF

What are Local anaesthetics?
Local anaesthetics – Local anesthetics are drugs which produce insensitivity in a limited area around the site of application or injection of the drug by preventing generation and conduction of impulses along nerve fibers and nerve ending and the effects are reversible.
 What are Anthelmintics 
Anthelmintics – The drugs which are used to kill or remove the parasitic worms, the term anthelmintic should not be restricted just to drugs acting locally to expel worms from the g.i.t. Various types of worms are able to penetrate tissues, & the drugs used to act against systemic infections should be included also under the general term anthelmintic.
 What are anticoagulants?
Anticoagulants – An anticoagulant is a substance that prevents coagulation; that is, it stops blood from clotting & anticoagulants are given to people to stop thrombosis (blood clotting inappropriately in the blood vessels).
 

What are Diagnostic agents?
Diagnostic agents – These are the agents or chemicals used to detect abnormalities in tissues & organs or to test an organ function, these are thus useful for the clinical diagnosis of the diseases & these agents do not usually have any medicinal values or pharmacological effect.
 

What are sympathomimetics?

Sympathomimetics – Drugs that mimic the actions obtained as a result of stimulation of the sympathetic or adrenergic nerves are called Sympathomimetics.

OR

The drugs that produce pharmacological effects like adrenaline or nor adrenaline or drugs which bring about stimulation of adrenergic nerves are called Sympathomimetics.

Diuretics – Drugs which promote excretion of water & electrolytes from body through kidneys in the form of urine are called diuretics.

Define antimalarials, Classify them with suitable examples and give the structure of

d)

Pyrimethamine.

Anti-malarial drugs: – The drugs which are used in the treatment of malaria caused due

definition

to Plasmodium Species like Plasmodium Vivax, P. falcifrum, P.malariae, P. ovale are called as Anti-malarial drugs.

Classification:

Quinine salts e.g. Quinine sulphate, Quinine phosphate, Quinine dihydrochloride.

8-Aminoquinolines e.g. Pentaquine, Isopentaquine, Pamaquine, Primaquine.

4-Aminoquinolines e.g. Chloroquine , Amodiaquine.

9-Aminoacridines e.g. Quinacrine, Mepacrine.

Biguanides e.g. Proguanil, Cycloguanil

e.g. pyrimethamine.

Artemisinin & its derivatives.

Miscellaneous: – They are further classified as mentioned below

Sulfones & sulfonamides.

Antibiotics

Write physiological actions of histamine. Classify antihistaminics with examples.

Histamine is a biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter.

Histamine triggers the inflammatory response. As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced by basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues.

marks classification

1mark str.

marks physiological actions,

marks classification

Physiological actions of histamine on various organs:

Blood vessels: Histamine causes dilation of blood vessels

Smooth muscle: It causes contraction of smooth muscle (Contraction of bronchi)

Excretory glands: Histamine has stimulant action on excretory glands. It increases nasal, lachrymal and bronchial secretion.

Acid secretion: Histamine increases acid secretion in stomach which causes peptic ulcer

Oedema: Excess secretion of histamine causes accumulation
of fluid and water in the body.

Allergy: It plays an important role in human allergy and allergic reactions.

Classification of antihistaminics:

H1 blockers or H1 antagonist:

Aminoalkylethers/Ethanolamines e.g. Diphenhydramine, Doxylamine

Ethylenediamine e.g.Mepyramine, Tripelennamine, Pyrilamine

Alkylamines/Propylamines e.g. Pheniramine, Chlorpheniramine, Triprolidine d)Phenothiazine derivatives e.g. Promethazine, Trimeprazine

Piperazine derivatives. e.g Meclizine, Cyclizine, Chlorcyclizine

Dibenzocycloheptenes: Cyproheptadine, Azatadine

Second generation antihistaminics: e.g. Cetrizine, Levocetrizine, Fexofenadine, Terfenadine

H2 Blockers or H2 receptor antagonist e.g. Ranitidine, Cimetidine, Famotidine
An inhibitor of histamine release e.g.Sodium Cromoglycate

Define vitamins. Write the important uses of vit. A, Nicotinic acid and ascorbic acid. 1 mark each.
 

Vitamins may be defined as potent organic substances which are essential for normal growth and maintenance of life of human and animals, which are not able to synthesize in adequate quantity.

Uses of Niacin or Nicotinic acid-

It is used for preventing vitamin B3 deficiency and related conditions such as pellagra.
 

Biochemically active form of Nicotinic acid is NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and its phosphate (NADP). These two coenzymes are required in protein and amino acid metabolism and electron transfer reaction in respiratory chain.
It causes peripheral vasodilation
 

Large dose of nicotinic acid decreases serum cholesterol level.

Uses of Vitamin A-

It is used for treating vitamin A deficiency.

Prevention and treatment of Night blindness, Xerophthalmia and keratomalacia.
 

A is important for growth, development and maintenance of immune system.
 

Some people use vitamin A for improving vision and treating eye disorders including age-related macular degeneration (AMD), glaucoma and

Vitamin A is also used for skin conditions including acne, eczema, psoriasis, cold sores, wounds, burns, sunburn.

Uses of Ascorbic acid-

In general this drug is used for the prevention and treatment of scurvy. This condition is caused by a lack of vitamin C often due to a lack of fresh fruit and vegetables. Symptoms of scurvy include a general feeling of being unwell, tiredness, muscle and joint pain, bleeding into the skin, around bones, into joints and from the gums, and loose teeth.
Ascorbic acid is involved in many redox reactions

(ii) Pethidine

Uses of Pethidine-

Analgesic activity: It is used in the treatment of severe pain like labor pain.
 

Spasmolytic agent: Pethidine is useful in the treatment of spasm of intestine, urinary bladder
 

Used as a substitute for morphine for the relief of most types of moderate to severe pains.
 

Used in combination with chlorpromazine & promethazine to produce narcosis.
 

It also produces mild euphoria.

h)

Give storage conditions for

Heparin
 

The aqueous solution is stable for at least 7 years at pH 7 to 8.

It is stored in sealed, sterile container so as to exclude microorganism and moisture.

Cyclopropane
 

It is stored in metal cylinder designed to hold compressed gases and kept in a cool room free from inflammable material.

The whole cylinder is painted orange. The shoulder should be stenciled with name or symbol “C3H6”. The name or symbol should be clearly stamped on the cylinder valve.

d) Write the difference between general anaesthetics and local anaesthetics. Give the

structure and chemical name of procaine.

2 marks for

Structure of procaine

differences

O

H2N                                                  C          O                                           C2H5

N

C2H5

Chemical name – 4-amino-(2-diethyl amino ethyl) benzoate or 2-(Diethyl amino)

ethyl-4-amino benzoate.

Distinguish between general anaesthetics and local anaesthetics

GENERAL ANAESTHETICS LOCAL ANAESTHETICS

1. General anaesthetics are the agents which It may be defined as any substance
bring about loss of all modalities of sensation, applied topically or by localized
particularly pain, along with a reversible loss
injection or infiltration to dull or block
of consciousness.

. pain sensation.

2. General anesthesia is induced either by Local anesthesia is induced by topical
inhalation of volatile & gaseous anesthetics application of drugs to skin or mucous
like diethyl ether, halothane or parenteral membrane (surface anesthesia) or by
administration of intravenous anesthetics injection into area subjected to surgical
like thiopentone sodium. operation (infiltration anaesthesia) or

injection into dual membrane of spinal

cord (spinal anesthesia)

3. General anaesthesia is produced before Local Anaesthesia is produced in short
carrying out surgical operation or in surgical procedures & in dentistry.
obstetrics.

4.Care of Vital organs essential Care of Vital organs is not essential

 E.g. halothane ,cycloprapane etc. E.g. procaine, lignocaine, benzocaine

Define and classify antihypertensive drugs.

Any agent used for reducing elevated blood pressure is known as antihypertensive agent or hypotensive agent.

Antihypertensive agents can be classified as follows below:-

Centrally acting agents: e.g. α-methyldopa, clonidine

Ganglion blockers : e.g. Pentolinium, Mecamylamine

Adrenergic neuron blockers e.g. Reserpine, Guanethidine

β-adrenergic blockers e.g. Propranalol, Atenolol

α-adrenergic blockers e.g. Prazosin, Tolazoline

Direct-acting vasodilators e.g. Hydralazine, Minoxidil

Calcium channel blockers eg. Verapamil

Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) e.g.Captopril, enalapril maleate.

mark definition

marks classification

3. Attempt any THREE of the following:

Write the general uses of diuretics. Give the structure and brand names of frusemide.
 

General uses of Diuretics:-

Diuretics are used to treat several conditions in medicine. Following are the conditions where diuretics are used

Hypertension or high blood pressure, Acute left ventricular failure or heart failure

Most types of oedema (renal oedema, oedema of pregnancy) or fluid accumulation

Acute renal failure and treatment of kidney stones

To excrete toxins and toxic metabolites out of the body.

To decreases intraocular pressure in glaucoma.

Treatment of hypercalcemia and hyperkalemia

Frusemide: Lasix, Fru, Frusenex, Tebemid etc.

Structure of frusemide:-

Define and classify NSAIDs.

b)

NSAIDs is an abbreviation for a group of agents called Non Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs.

De

A. Nonselective COX inhibitors (conventional NSAIDs)

Salicylates: Aspirin, Diflunisal

Para Amino Phenol Derivatives- Phenacetin, Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)

Pyrazolone derivatives: Phenylbutazone, Oxyphenbutazone

Indole derivatives: Indomethacin, Sulindac

Propionic acid derivatives: Ibuprofen, Naproxen, Ketoprofen, Flurbiprofen

Anthranilic acid derivatives: Mephenamic acid
Aryl‐acetic acid derivatives: Diclofenac.

Oxicam derivatives: Piroxicam
Pyrrolo‐pyrrole derivative: Ketorolac
Preferential COX‐2 inhibitors: Nimesulide, Meloxicam, Nabumetone

Selective COX‐2 inhibitors: Celecoxib, Rofecoxib, Valdecoxib

Write any one important use of Indigo carmine, Evans blue, Fluorescein Sodium and Congo red.
 

Uses of Indigo carmine

It is administered intravenously to test renal function (by estimating the rate of excretion in urine) & to locate the uretheral orifices.
 

In the lab it is used as coloring agents.

Uses of Evans blue

Evans Blue is a di-azo compound used to determine blood volume in humans and animals.
 

The dye combines firmly with plasma albumin when injected into the blood stream and leaves the circulation very slowly.

Marks classification

1 Mark each

Page 17 of 32

MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

(Autonoalium, Placidox, Anaxol, Quietal, Diazewok, Zepose, Microdep

.

What    is    epilepsy?     Classify    anticonvulsants     and    write    the    structure     of

 

Epilepsy is a disease which arises due to the disorders of control nervous system. This disease is characterized by somewhat more or less frequent recurrence of seizures in

which there occur convulsions or other abnormal body movements, which are accompanied by loss or disturbance in consciousness. Anticonvulsants are classified as:

Barbiturates: – Barbitone sodium, Phenobarbitone, Methyl phenobarbitone.

Hydantoins :- Phenytoin, Mephenytoin

Oxazolidinediones :-Trimethadione, Paramethadione

Succinimides :- Ethosuximide, Phensuximide

Benzodiazepines: Diazepam, Clonazepam, Lorazepam, Nitrazepam

Miscellaneous :- Primidone, Carbamazepine, Valproic acid, Phenacemide, Pregabalin, Gabapentin

Phenobarbitone Structure

Define and classify narcotic analgesic drugs.
 

Narcotic analgesics are derivatives of opium, semi synthetic or synthetic agents having potent analgesic & narcotic activity and effective for the treatment of severe pain. Classification of Narcotic analgesics

Narcotic analgesic are classified as:-

Morphine and related compounds (Natural alkaloids of opium) e.g. Morphine, Codeine.

Semi-synthetic derivatives of morphine- Heroin, Brown Sugar
Marks Classification 1Mark str.

Mark definition

Marks classify.

Synthetic Agents- Methadone, Pethidine, Dextropropoxyphen hydrochloride

Page

What do you know about sex hormones? Give the uses of Progesterone and Cortisone.
 

Sex hormones are the hormones which are produced mainly in gonads, ovaries or testes. They influence the development and maintenance of the structures directly and indirectly associated with reproduction. Three main types of sex hormones are

Androgenic or anabolic steroids :-

The androgens are mainly able to maintain the development and maintenance of the secondary male sex characters, thereby increasing virility and libido.

Oestrogens :- Oestrogens influence development and maintenance of secondary female sex characters. They are also essential for maintenance of pregnancy. They also exert anabolic effect on protein metabolism & water retention.

Progestogens.:-

Progestogens are necessary for various changes takes place in uterus & vagina during menstrual cycle, for developing mammary tissue and for maintain pregnancy.

Uses of Progesterone:

It is used as a hormonal replacement therapy in deficiency of progesterone.
 

It is used in treatment of dysfunctional uterine bleeding.
 

It is also used along with estrogen in menstrual disorders, premenstrual tension
 

It is used in treatment of neoplasm of breast and endometriosis.
 

It has also been incorporated into an intra-uterine device for female contraception.
 

Treatment of habitual abortion.
 

Maintenance of pregnancy if it occurs.

Uses of Cortisone:

Anti-inflammatory action: Cortisone is a steroid that prevents the release of substances in the body that cause inflammation.
 

Cortisone is used to treat many different conditions such as allergic disorders, skin conditions, ulcerative colitis, arthritis, lupus, psoriasis, or breathing disorders.

1 Mark sex hormones,

1.5 Marks to uses of each drug

Subject Title: Pharmaceutical Chemistry-I I Subject Code:

Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis
 

Treatment of lung infection
 

Treatment of allergic conjunctivitis
 

It has immune suppressant action hence used in organ transplantation and autoimmune disorder.
 

Treatment of Addison’s disease.
 

Write the structure and uses of
 

Atropine

Atropine Uses:

Atropine has antispasmodic action on smooth muscles, hence used for the treatment of gastric and duodenal ulcers and for the relief of renal and biliary colics.
Useful in symptomatic treatment of Parkinsonism.
 

It is one of the components of pre-anaesthetic medication, where it is given to reduce salivary and bronchial secretions and to diminish the risk of vagal inhibition of the heart.
 

It is used by ophthalmologist for its mydriatic effects.
 

Treatment of hyperhidrosis (Abnormal increased sweating)

1Mark Str.

1Mark use.

Propranolol

Propranolol Uses:

Treatment of various cardiac diseases like Cardiac arrhythmia, Arterial hypertension,
 

Angina pectoris, congestive heart failure, coronary atherosclerosis, tacycardia
 

Treatment of Pheochromocytoma (cancer of adrenal glands)
 

Treatment of glaucoma

5. Attempt any THREE of the following.

Write structure, chemical name uses and brand names of Paracetamol

a)

Structure

Chemical name: p-hydroxy acetanilide OR 4-hydroxy acetanilide OR 4-Acetylaminophenol

Uses:

Antipyretic
 

Analgesics for relief of pain such as headache, toothache, neuralgia, rheumatism.

Brand names- Tylenol, Calpol, panadol, crocin, metacin, valadol, paldesic, Dolo

Define antiseptics and disinfectants. Classify them with examples

b)

Def:  Antiseptic and disinfectants are the chemical agents which are employed to destroy

Pharmaceutical Chemistry

or inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganism. Antiseptics are applied on living tissues while disinfectants are used on inanimates or non living objects.

CLASSIFICATION

1) Alcohols & Aldehydes

E.g. Ethyl Alcohol, Isopropyl alcohol,  Formaldehyde

2) Halogen Compounds.

E.g. Chloramine T, Chorhexidine Acetate, Dibromopropamidine Isothionate.

3) Phenols & Related Compounds

E .g. Phenol, Chlorocresol, Chloroxylenol, Cresol, Hexachlorophene, Thymol.

4) Mercury Compounds.

E.g. , Thiomersal, Mercuric chloride

5) Dyes.

E.g. Proflavine Hemisulphate, Acriflavine, Brilliant Green, Crystal Violet (Gentian Violet), Methylene Blue.

6) Surface Active Agents

E.g. Benzalkonium Chloride, Cetrimide, Cetylpyridinium Chloride, Domiphen Bromide,

7) Miscellaneous Agents.

E.g.   Dequalinum Sulphate, Nitrofurazone.

Give structure, chemical name and uses of D.E.C.

Structure

M classification

2 M structure

1 M chemical name

1M uses

Page

Chemical name: 7-Chloro-4-[4’-(diethylamino)-1-methyl butyl] amino quinoline

Dosage forms:

Chlroquine Phosphate Injection

Chlroquine Phosphate Tablets

Chlroquine Syrup

Chroquine Sulphate Injection

Chroquine Sulphate tablet

Brand Names: Cadiquin, Cloquin, Emquin, Lariago, Aralen, Avioclor, Quinross, Resochin, Nivaquine

Attempt any THREE of the following:
 

What are anti-amoebic agents? Classify them with suitable examples.

Anti-amoebic agents: The drugs which are used in the treatment of amoebic infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica are called as antiamoebic drugs.
 

Classification of antiamoebic drugs:

Drugs of natural origin: g. emetin
 

Synthetic drugs:
 

Quinoline derivative e.g. Chloroquine

Halogenated-8-hydroxyquinoline derivative e.g. quinidochlor, Diiodohydroxyquinoline

Nitro-imidazole derivative e.g. Metronidazole, Tinidazole

rks

M definition

M classification

Page 27 of 32

Antibiotic: e.g. Paramomycin, Tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxythromycin

Organic arsenicals: e.g. carbarsone

Miscellaneous e.g Diloxanide furoate

Explain the process of blood coagulation. Write the structure and chemical name of

 
Process of blood coagulation:

Thrombin and several clotting factors present in plasma and calcium ions are involved in the coagulation. Process of blood coagulation can be described as follows.
 

Whenever there is an injury to a blood vessel, there is formation of rough surface. When blood platelets come in contact with such a rough surface, they are injured.
 

Due to injury, they release the substance called thromboplastin. In the presence of thromboplastin and calcium in the blood plasma prothrombin is converted into thrombin which helps in conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.
 

The fibrin is insoluble and forms threads. The threads of fibrin form a net. In the holes of this net, blood cells are entangled. This mass then contracts to form a blood clot.

i) Indomethacine

Pharmaceutical Chemistry B Pharmacy Second Year Notes || D Pharmacy Material PDF
Uses:

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic in rheumatoid arthritis

Treatment of spondylitis, osteoarthritis and in gout

Treatment of dysmenorrhea and migraine.

Uses:

To relieve bronchial spasm in acute attacks of asthma.

It is used to increase blood pressure in treatment of hypotension.

Intra venous administration of Adrenaline is used to treat acute circulary collapse or cardiac arrest.

Treatment of allergic disorder.

Treatment of superficial bleeding due to its vasoconstriction effect.

Added to local anesthetic to prolong the duration of effect.

It has mydriatic effect.
 

Define and classify cholinergic drugs. Write the uses of Acetylcholine Definition:
 

The agents that mimic the action of acetylcholine or produce the effect of parasympathetic nerve stimulation are called as cholinergic drugs or parasympathomimetic agents.

Classification:

Choline esters: Acetylcholine, Methacholine, Carbachol

Cholinomimetic alkaloids: Muscarine, Pilocarpine, Arecholine

Cholinesterase inhibitors (Indirectly acting)

Reversible Inhibitors- Physostigmine, Neostigmine, Pyridostigmine

Irreversible Inhibitors- Organophosphates (Parathion, Malathion), Insecticides.

Uses of Acetylcholine:

It reduces intraocular pressure in glaucoma

In the relief of atony of gut and urinary bladder

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes – PDF PPT – ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes - PDF PPT - ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA

Pharmacodynamics Definition:

Pharmacodynamics the branch of pharmacology concerned with the effects of drugs and the mechanism of their action.

“Pharmacodynamics involves how the drugs act on target cells to alter cellular function.”

A. Receptor and non-receptor mechanisms: Most of the drugs act by interacting with a cellular component called receptor. Some drugs act through simple physical or chemical reactions without interacting with any receptor.

• Receptors are protein molecules present either on the cell surface or with in the cell e.g. adrenergic receptors, cholinoceptors, insulin receptors, etc.
• The endogenous neurotransmitters, hormones, autacoids and most of the drugs produce their effects by binding with their specific receptors.
• Aluminium hydroxide and magnesium trisilicate, which are used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease act by non-receptor mechanism by neutralizing the gastric acid.

Pharmacodynamics Basics:

Many drugs are similar to or have similar chemical groups to the naturally occurring chemical and have the ability to bind onto a receptor where one of two things can happen- either the receptor will respond or it will be blocked.
A drug, which is able to fit onto a receptor, is said to have affinity for that receptor. Efficacy is the ability of a drug to produce an effect at a receptor. An agonist has both an affinity and efficacy whereas antagonist has affinity but not efficacy or intrinsic activity.
When a drug is able to stimulate a receptor, it is known as an agonist and therefore mimics the endogenous transmitter.
When the drug blocks a receptor, it is known as antagonist and therefore blocks the action of the endogenous transmitter (i.e. it will prevent the natural chemical from acting on the receptor).
However, as most drug binding is reversible, there will be competition between the drug and the natural stimulus to the receptor.

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes – PDF PPT – ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA
The forces that attract the drug to its receptor are termed chemical bonds and they are

(a)hydrogen bond

(b) ionic bond

(c) covalent bond

(d) Vander waals force.

Covalent bond is the strongest bond and the drug-receptor complex is usually irreversible.
K1 K3
DR Biological effect
D+R K2
Where D = Drug, R= receptor DR= Drug receptor complex (affinity)
K1 = association constant
K2 = dissociation constant
K3 = intrinsic activity
When first messengers like neurotransmitters, hormones, autacoids and most of drugs bind with their specific receptors, the drug receptor complex is formed which subsequently causes the synthesis and release of another intracellular regulatory molecule termed as second messengers e.g. cyclic AMP, calcium, cyclic GMP, inositol triphosphate (IP3), diacylglycerol and calmodulin which in turn produce subcellular or molecular mechanism of drug action.

B. Site of drug action:

– A drug may act:
(i) Extracellularly e.g: osmotic diuretics, plasma expanders.
(ii) On the cell surface e.g.: digitalis, penicillin, catecholamines
(iii) Inside the cell e.g.: anti-cancer drugs, steroid hormones.
C. Dose Response relationship
The exact relationship between the dose and the response depends on the biological object under observation and the drug employed.
When a logarithm of dose as abscissa and responses as ordinate are constructed graphically, the “S” shaped or sigmoid type curve is obtained.
The lowest concentration of a drug that elicits a response is minimal dose, and the largest concentration after which further increase in concentration will not change the response is the maximal dose.
1. Graded dose effect: As the dose administered to a single subject or tissue increases, the pharmacological response also increases in graded fashion up to ceiling effect.
– It is used for characterization of the action of drugs. The concentration that is required to produce 50 % of the maximum effect is termed as EC50 or ED50.50

2. Quantal dose effect: It is all or none response, the sensitive objects give response to small doses of a drug while some will be resistant and need very large doses. The quantal dose effect curve is often characterized by stating the median effective dose and the median lethal dose.
Median lethal dose or LD50: This is the dose (mg/kg), which would be expected to kill one half of a population of the same species and strain.
Median effective dose or ED50: This is the dose (mg/kg), which produces a desired response in 50 per cent of test population.
Therapeutic index: It is an approximate assessment of the safety of the drug. It is the ratio of the median lethal dose and the median effective dose. Also called as therapeutic window or safety.

The larger the therapeutic index, the safer is the drug. Penicillin has a very high therapeutic index, while it is much smaller for the digitalis preparation.

D. Structural activity relationship

The activity of a drug is intimately related to its chemical structure. Knowledge about the chemical structure of a drug is useful for:
(i) Synthesis of new compounds with more specific actions and fewer adverse reactions
(ii) Synthesis of competitive antagonist and
(iii) Understanding the mechanism of drug action.
Slight modification of structure of the compound can change the effect completely.

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Pharmacodynamics Examples:

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes - PDF PPT - ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA

Pharmacodynamics of atropine:

Atropine, a naturally occurring belladonna alkaloid, is a racemic mixture of equal parts of d- and l-hyoscyamine, whose activity is due almost entirely to the levo isomer of the drug. Atropine is commonly classified as an anticholinergic or antiparasympathetic (parasympatholytic) drug. More precisely, however, it is termed an antimuscarinic agent since it antagonizes the muscarine-like actions of acetylcholine and other choline esters. Adequate doses of atropine abolish various types of reflex vagal cardiac slowing or asystole. The drug also prevents or abolishes bradycardia or asystole produced by injection of choline esters, anticholinesterase agents or other parasympathomimetic drugs, and cardiac arrest produced by stimulation of the vagus. Atropine may also lessen the degree of partial heart block when vagal activity is an etiologic factor. Atropine in clinical doses counteracts the peripheral dilatation and abrupt decrease in blood pressure produced by choline esters. However, when given by itself, atropine does not exert a striking or uniform effect on blood vessels or blood pressure.

Pharmacodynamics of Furosemide

Furosemide, a sulfonamide-type loop diuretic structurally related to bumetanide, is used to manage hypertension and edema associated with congestive heart failure, cirrhosis, and renal disease, including the nephrotic syndrome.

Furosemide, a loop diuretic, inhibits water reabsorption in the nephron by blocking the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter (NKCC2) in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle. This is achieved through competitive inhibition at the chloride binding site on the cotransporter, thus preventing the transport of sodium from the lumen of the loop of Henle into the basolateral interstitium. Consequently, the lumen becomes more hypertonic while the interstitium becomes less hypertonic, which in turn diminishes the osmotic gradient for water reabsorption throughout the nephron. Because the thick ascending limb is responsible for 25% of sodium reabsorption in the nephron, furosemide is a very potent diuretic.

Pharmacodynamics of Heparin

Unfractionated heparin is a highly acidic mucopolysaccharide formed of equal parts of sulfated D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid with sulfaminic bridges. The molecular weight ranges from 3000 to 30,000 daltons. Heparin is obtained from liver, lung, mast cells, and other cells of vertebrates. Heparin is a well-known and commonly used anticoagulant which has antithrombotic properties. Heparin inhibits reactions that lead to the clotting of blood and the formation of fibrin clots both in vitro and in vivo. Small amounts of heparin in combination with antithrombin III, a heparin cofactor,) can inhibit thrombosis by inactivating Factor Xa and thrombin. Once active thrombosis has developed, larger amounts of heparin can inhibit further coagulation by inactivating thrombin and preventing the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. Heparin also prevents the formation of a stable fibrin clot by inhibiting the activation of the fibrin stabilizing factor. Heparin prolongs several coagulation tests. Of all the coagulation tests, activated partial prothrombin time (aPTT) is the most clinically important value.

Mechanism of action

Under normal circumstances, antithrombin III (ATIII) inactivates thrombin (factor IIa) and factor Xa. This process occurs at a slow rate. Administered heparin binds reversibly to ATIII and leads to almost instantaneous inactivation of factors IIa and Xa The heparin-ATIII complex can also inactivate factors IX, XI, XII and plasmin. The mechanism of action of heparin is ATIII-dependent. It acts mainly by accelerating the rate of the neutralization of certain activated coagulation factors by antithrombin, but other mechanisms may also be involved. The antithrombotic effect of heparin is well correlated to the inhibition of factor Xa. Heparin is not a thrombolytic or fibrinolytic. It prevents progression of existing clots by inhibiting further clotting. The lysis of existing clots relies on endogenous thrombolytics.

Pharmacodynamics of paracetamol
Pharmacodynamics of Acetaminophen

Acetaminophen (USAN) or Paracetamol (INN) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of fever, headaches, and other minor aches and pains. It is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu medications and many prescription analgesics. It is extremely safe in standard doses, but because of its wide availability, deliberate or accidental overdoses are not uncommon. Acetaminophen, unlike other common analgesics such as aspirin and ibuprofen, has no anti-inflammatory properties or effects on platelet function, and it is not a member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs. At therapeutic doses acetaminophen does not irritate the lining of the stomach nor affect blood coagulation, kidney function, or the fetal ductus arteriosus (as NSAIDs can). Like NSAIDs and unlike opioid analgesics, acetaminophen does not cause euphoria or alter mood in any way. Acetaminophen and NSAIDs have the benefit of being completely free of problems with addiction, dependence, tolerance and withdrawal. Acetaminophen is used on its own or in combination with pseudoephedrine, dextromethorphan, chlorpheniramine, diphenhydramine, doxylamine, codeine, hydrocodone, or oxycodone.

Mechanism of action:

Acetaminophen is thought to act primarily in the CNS, increasing the pain threshold by inhibiting both isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3 enzymes involved in prostaglandin (PG) synthesis. Unlike NSAIDs, acetaminophen does not inhibit cyclooxygenase in peripheral tissues and, thus, has no peripheral anti-inflammatory affects. While aspirin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of COX and directly blocks the enzyme’s active site, studies have found that acetaminophen indirectly blocks COX, and that this blockade is ineffective in the presence of peroxides. This might explain why acetaminophen is effective in the central nervous system and in endothelial cells but not in platelets and immune cells which have high levels of peroxides. Studies also report data suggesting that acetaminophen selectively blocks a variant of the COX enzyme that is different from the known variants COX-1 and COX-2. This enzyme is now referred to as COX-3. Its exact mechanism of action is still poorly understood, but future research may provide further insight into how it works. The antipyretic properties of acetaminophen are likely due to direct effects on the heat-regulating centres of the hypothalamus resulting in peripheral vasodilation, sweating and hence heat dissipation.

Pharmacodynamics of salbutamol

Salbutamol (INN) or albuterol (USAN), a moderately selective beta(2)-receptor agonist similar in structure to terbutaline, is widely used as a bronchodilator to manage asthma and other chronic obstructive airway diseases. The R-isomer, levalbuterol, is responsible for bronchodilation while the S-isomer increases bronchial reactivity. The R-enantiomer is sold in its pure form as Levalbuterol. The manufacturer of levalbuterol, Sepracor, has implied (although not directly claimed) that the presence of only the R-enantiomer produces fewer side-effects.

Mechanism of action:

Salbutamol is a beta(2)-adrenergic agonist and thus it stimulates beta(2)-adrenergic receptors. Binding of albuterol to beta(2)-receptors in the lungs results in relaxation of bronchial smooth muscles. It is believed that salbutamol increases cAMP production by activating adenylate cyclase, and the actions of salbutamol are mediated by cAMP. Increased intracellular cyclic AMP increases the activity of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A, which inhibits the phosphorylation of myosin and lowers intracellular calcium concentrations. A lowered intracellular calcium concentration leads to a smooth muscle relaxation and bronchodilation. In addition to bronchodilation, salbutamol inhibits the release of bronchoconstricting agents from mast cells, inhibits microvascular leakage, and enhances mucociliary clearance.

Pharmacodynamics of vamana

The overall Pharmacodynamic of Vamanopaga dasemāni drugs is based on guna concept. Most of the drugs (90%) are having property of Laghu and Ruksa guna. These are based on Vāyu, Agni and Ākasa mahābhaūtik (one of the five elements of the universe) composition. Ācarya Caraka has mentioned only the role of gunas in the  Pharmacodynamic of Vamana karma (Bhadanta Nāgārjunā, Rasavaisesika, 2010). In fact guna is the thing
which represents a drug. So, the selection of a drug should be on the basis of gunas for Vamana karma. 
Ācarya has mentioned predominance of Vāyu and Agni mahābhūta drugs for Vamana karma. Rasas (taste) of vamana dravyas are chiefly katu and kasāya rasa which are composition of the same mahābhūtas. Most of
drugs are katu Vipāka having similar bhaūtic constitution. Other drugs are supportive to the therapy or to avoid complications during Vamana karma. As an example; honey which is mentioned in Vamanopaga dasemāni is added
to Vamana kalpa (prepared medicine) for increasing the palatability and giving soothing effect. Āyurveda says it is a good kapha chedaka (expectorant), helps in better expulsion of malarūpī kapha by vamana karma. Likewise Saindhava (salt) should be added to Vamana kalpa for Vilāyana (Agnivesa, Caraka Samhita, 2001) (liquefying)
of sticky Kaphadosa in channels. Effect of both the drugs is to help in a comfortable and irritation less procedure. added to Vamana kalpa for Vilāyana (Agnivesa, Caraka Samhita, 2001) (liquefying) of sticky Kaphadosa in channels. Effect of both the drugs is to help in a comfortable and irritation less procedure.

Pharmacodynamics of basti

Basti is chief Panchakama procedure used in Ayurveda. The pharmacodynamics of systemic effect of Basti may be understood through absorption mechanism, concept of system biology, neural stimulation mechanism, and excretory mechanism. As Basti is homogenous emulsion mixture of Honey, Saindhava,Sneha Dravya, Kalka, and decoction of crude drugs and Prakshepa Dravya, which is given through rectum, is absorbed, hence Basti is used as route of drug administration. Through rectal route large quantity of drugs can be delivered for systemic circulation and act accordingly. Concept of system biology opines that a change at cellular level of a system can bring changes in tissue, organ and system and in another system consequently & finally in whole body. As per recent advancement intestine not only is highly vascular but also highly innervated organ which forms ‘Enteric Nervous System’ (ENS).ENS may works in synergism with Central Nervous System of body. The cleansing action of Basti is related with the facilitation of excretion of morbid substances responsible for the disease process into the colon, from where it is evacuated.

Basti being the most widely used and highly effective treatment modality in the Ayurveda, it is the prime subject of interest for modern scientific community. With this background the basic question which comes forward regarding Basti is, “do active principles of drugs used in Basti get absorbed in systemic circulation. Triphaladi decoction Basti containing biomarker gallic acid and after Basti they traced it in the circulation. The rectum has rich blood and lymph supply and drugs can cross the rectal mucosa like other lipid membrane. Thus unionised and lipid soluble
substances are readily absorbed from the rectal mucosa. Small quantity of short chain fatty acid fatty acids, such as those from butterfat are absorbed directly into portal blood rather than being converted into triglycerides. This is because short chain fatty acids are more water soluble and allow direct diffusion from the epithelial cells into
capillary blood of villi. However decoction Basti gets a very little time maximum 48 minutes  to absorb from colon and rectum how so ever these areas have very large surface area and highly vascular needed for absorption. Retention time for Anuvashana Basti is relatively more so probability of absorption also increases. Anuvasana Basti
after reaching in the rectum and colon causes secretion of bile from gall bladder which leads to the formation of conjugate micelles which is absorbed through passive diffusion. Especially short chain fatty acid present in Sneha of
Anuvasana Basti may absorb from colon and large intestine part of gastrointestinal tract and break the pathology of disease. In Basti Karma, a homogenous emulsion

2) By System Biology Concept of Honey, Saindhava, Sneha Dravya, Kalka, and decoction mixed in remarkable combination after proper churning (break the large and middle chain fatty acid into small chain fatty acids) is given which facilitates absorption better then a single drug per rectum. In Ayurveda classics, various Basti Dravya are
mentioned in diverse proportion in different diseases, it again confirms pharmacodynamics of Basti through absorption mechanism

Pharmacodynamics of phenytoin

Phenytoin is an antiepileptic drug which can be useful in the treatment of epilepsy. The primary site of action appears to be the motor cortex where spread of seizure activity is inhibited. Phenytoin reduces the maximal activity of brain stem centers responsible for the tonic phase of tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures. Phenytoin acts to dampen the unwanted, runaway brain activity seen in seizure by reducing electrical conductance among brain cells. It lacks the sedation effects associated with phenobarbital. There are some indications that phenytoin has other effects, including anxiety control and mood stabilization, although it has never been approved for those purposes by the FDA. Phenytoin is primarily metabolized by CYP2C9.

Mechanism of action

Phenytoin acts on sodium channels on the neuronal cell membrane, limiting the spread of seizure activity and reducing seizure propagation. By promoting sodium efflux from neurons, phenytoin tends to stabilize the threshold against hyperexcitability caused by excessive stimulation or environmental changes capable of reducing membrane sodium gradient. This includes the reduction of post-tetanic potentiation at synapses. Loss of post-tetanic potentiation prevents cortical seizure foci from detonating adjacent cortical areas.

Pharmacodynamics of Aspirin

Acetylsalicylic acid is an analgesic, antipyretic, antirheumatic, and anti-inflammatory agent. Acetylsalicylic acid’s mode of action as an antiinflammatory and antirheumatic agent may be due to inhibition of synthesis and release of prostaglandins. Acetylsalicylic acid appears to produce analgesia by virtue of both a peripheral and CNS effect. Peripherally, acetylsalicylic acid acts by inhibiting the synthesis and release of prostaglandins. Acting centrally, it would appear to produce analgesia at a hypothalamic site in the brain, although the mode of action is not known. Acetylsalicylic acid also acts on the hypothalamus to produce antipyresis; heat dissipation is increased as a result of vasodilation and increased peripheral blood flow. Acetylsalicylic acid’s antipyretic activity may also be related to inhibition of synthesis and release of prostaglandins.

Mechanism of action:

The analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory effects of acetylsalicylic acid are due to actions by both the acetyl and the salicylate portions of the intact molecule as well as by the active salicylate metabolite. Acetylsalicylic acid directly and irreversibly inhibits the activity of both types of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) to decrease the formation of precursors of prostaglandins and thromboxanes from arachidonic acid. This makes acetylsalicylic acid different from other NSAIDS (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen) which are reversible inhibitors. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Acetylsalicylic acid’s antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms; the therapeutic effects are not due to pituitary-adrenal stimulation. The platelet aggregation-inhibiting effect of acetylsalicylic acid specifically involves the compound’s ability to act as an acetyl donor to cyclooxygenase; the nonacetylated salicylates have no clinically significant effect on platelet aggregation. Irreversible acetylation renders cyclooxygenase inactive, thereby preventing the formation of the aggregating agent thromboxane A2 in platelets. Since platelets lack the ability to synthesize new proteins, the effects persist for the life of the exposed platelets (7-10 days). Acetylsalicylic acid may also inhibit production of the platelet aggregation inhibitor, prostacyclin (prostaglandin I2), by blood vessel endothelial cells; however, inhibition prostacyclin production is not permanent as endothelial cells can produce more cyclooxygenase to replace the non-functional enzyme.

Pharmacodynamics of pantaprazole

Pantoprazole is a substituted benzimidazole indicated for the short-term treatment (up to 16 weeks) in the healing and symptomatic relief of erosive esophagitis. Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) that suppresses the final step in gastric acid production.

Mechanism of action:

Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) that suppresses the final step in gastric acid production by forming a covalent bond to two sites of the (H+,K+ )- ATPase enzyme system at the secretory surface of the gastric parietal cell. This effect is dose- related and leads to inhibition of both basal and stimulated gastric acid secretion irrespective of the stimulus.

Pharmacology Text Books Lists: D Pharm B Pharm Medical Students Top 10 Pharmacology Books

Hello readers in this article “List of Pharmacology & Toxicology Books” we provide Top 10 best rated Pharmacology Books along with Author Name which are bestselling Pharmacology textbooks in the current market. We provide Best Pharmacology Books Every Student Should Know to understand the subject in a proper and interactive way.

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What is Pharmacology:

Pharmacology is the study of interaction of drugs with living organisms. It also includes history, source, physicochemical properties, dosage forms, methods of administration, absorption, distribution mechanism of action, biotransformation, excretion, clinical uses and adverse effects of drugs. Pharmacology is both a basic and an applied science. It forms the backbone of rational therapeutics.Whereas the medical student and the prescribing physician are primarily concerned with the applied aspects, correct and skillful application of drugs is impossible without a proper understanding of their basic pharmacology. Medical  pharmacology, therefore, must include both fundamental background and clinical pharmacological information. Objective and quantitative data on the use of drugs in man, i.e., relationship between plasma concentration and intensity of therapeutic/toxic actions, plasma half lives, relative efficacy of different medications and incidence of adverse effects etc., are being obtained with the aim of optimising drug therapy. The concepts regarding mechanism
of action of drugs are changing. In addition, new drugs are being introduced in different countries at an explosive pace. A plethora of information thus appears to be important.

Here is a overview of General Pharmacology Text Books:

Section 1
General Pharmacological Principles
1. Introduction, Routes of Drug Administration
2. Pharmacokinetics: Membrane Transport, Absorption and Distribution of Drugs
3. Pharmacokinetics: Metabolism and Excretion of Drugs, Kinetics of Elimination
4. Pharmacodynamics: Mechanism of Drug Action; Receptor Pharmacology
5. Aspects of Pharmacotherapy, Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Development
6. Adverse Drug Effects 82
Section 2
Drugs Acting on Autonomic Nervous System
7a. Autonomic Nervous System: General Considerations
7b. Cholinergic System and Drugs 99
8. Anticholinergic Drugs and Drugs Acting on Autonomic Ganglia
9. Adrenergic System and Drugs
10. Antiadrenergic Drugs (Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists) and
Drugs for Glaucoma

Section 3
Autacoids and Related Drugs
11. Histamine and Antihistaminics
2. 5-Hydroxytryptamine, its Antagonists and Drug Therapy of Migraine
13. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes (Eicosanoids) and Platelet Activating Factor
14. Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs and Antipyretic-Analgesics
15. Antirheumatoid and Antigout Drugs
Section 4
Respiratory System Drugs
16. Drugs for Cough and Bronchial Asthma
Section 5
Hormones and Related Drugs
17a. Introduction
17b. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
18. Thyroid Hormone and Thyroid Inhibitors
19. Insulin, Oral Hypoglycaemic Drugs and Glucagon
20. Corticosteroids 282
21. Androgens and Drugs for Erectile Dysfunction
22. Estrogens, Progestins and Contraceptives
23. Oxytocin and Other Drugs Acting on Uterus
24. Drugs Affecting Calcium Balance
Section 6
Drugs Acting on Peripheral (Somatic)
Nervous System
25. Skeletal Muscle Relaxants
26. Local Anaesthetics
Section 7
Drugs Acting on Central Nervous System
27. General Anaesthetics
28. Ethyl and Methyl Alcohols
29. Sedative-Hypnotics
30. Antiepileptic Drugs
31. Antiparkinsonian Drugs
32. Drugs Used in Mental Illness: Antipsychotic and Antimanic Drugs
33. Drugs Used in Mental Illness: Antidepressant and Antianxiety Drugs 454
34. Opioid Analgesics and Antagonists 469
35. CNS Stimulants and Cognition Enhancers 486

Section 8
Cardiovascular Drugs
36a. Cardiac Electrophysiological Considerations
36b. Drugs Affecting Renin-Angiotensin System and Plasma Kinins
37. Cardiac Glycosides and Drugs for Heart Failure 512
38. Antiarrhythmic Drugs 526
39. Antianginal and Other Anti-ischaemic Drugs
40. Antihypertensive Drugs 558
Section 9
Drugs Acting on Kidney
41a. Relevant Physiology of Urine Formation
41b. Diuretics 579
42. Antidiuretics 593
Section 10
Drugs Affecting Blood and Blood Formation
43. Haematinics and Erythropoietin 599
44. Drugs Affecting Coagulation, Bleeding and Thrombosis
45. Hypolipidaemic Drugs and Plasma Expanders 634
Section 11
Gastrointestinal Drugs
46. Drugs for Peptic Ulcer and Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
47. Antiemetic, Prokinetic and Digestant Drugs
48. Drugs for Constipation and Diarrhoea 672
Section 12
Antimicrobial Drugs
49. Antimicrobial Drugs: General Considerations
50. Sulfonamides, Cotrimoxazole and Quinolones
51. Beta-Lactam Antibiotics 716

52. Tetracyclines and Chloramphenicol (Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics)
53. Aminoglycoside Antibiotics 743
54. Macrolide, Lincosamide, Glycopeptide and Other Antibacterial Antibiotics;
Urinary Antiseptics 752
55. Antitubercular Drugs
56. Antileprotic Drugs
57. Antifungal Drugs
58. Antiviral Drugs
59. Antimalarial Drugs
60. Antiamoebic and Other Antiprotozoal Drugs
61. Anthelmintic Drugs 849
Section 13
Chemotherapy of Neoplastic Diseases
62. Anticancer Drugs 857
Section 14
Miscellaneous Drugs
63. Immunosuppressant Drugs
64. Drugs Acting on Skin and Mucous Membranes
65. Antiseptics, Disinfectants and Ectoparasiticides
66. Chelating Agents 905
67. Vitamins 909
68. Vaccines and Sera
69. Drug Interactions

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General Pharmacology Textbooks will help B Pharm M Pharm D Pharm and medical students to:

1. Define various terminologies used in Pharmacology.
2. Know about nature and sources of drugs.
3. Understand pharmacodynamics like mechanism of drug action, dose relation ship and pharmacokinetics like absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) of drugs.
4. Understand theoritical pharmacokinetics like half-life, order of kinetics, steady state plasma concentration.
5. Understand drug safety and effectiveness like factors affecting drug action and adverse drug reactions.
6. Understand new drug development and evaluation

List Of Pharmacology & Toxicology Books:

Pharmacology & Toxicology Books

List of Pharmacology Text Books Pharmacology Text Books For Pharmacy Medical Dentist Students
Pharmacology Text Books For B Pharmacy Pharmacology Text Books For M Pharmacy Pharmacology Text Books For D Pharmacy Pharmacology Text Books For Pharmd Pharmacology Text Books For Medicos Pharmacology Text Books For Medical Students

Pharmacology Text Books For B Pharmacy

Kd-Tripathi-Essentials-Of-Medical-Pharmacology

Rang & Dale’s Pharmacology- 7th Edition

Pharmacology: Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews

Pharmacology Text Books For M Pharmacy:

Kd-Tripathi-Essentials-Of-Medical-Pharmacology

Rang & Dale’s Pharmacology- 7th Edition

Pharmacology: Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews

Goodman & Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics

Pharmacology Text Books For D Pharmacy

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Kd-Tripathi-Essentials-Of-Medical-Pharmacology

) Pharmacology: Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews

2) USMLE Road Map – Pharmacology

3) Katzung’s Pharmacology: Examination and Board Review

4) Kaplan Lecture Notes: Pharmacology

5) Pharmacology Brenner

6) Pharmacology: PreTest Self-Assessment and Review

7) Elsevier’s Integrated Pharmacology

8) Lecture Notes on Clinical Pharmacology

9) Pharmcards

10) Pharmacology – Oklahoma Notes

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D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem – Anatomy & Physiology Notes – Solved Question Paper

Lymph node D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem - Anatomy & Physiology Notes

Here is a great article for our readers especially D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem students who are struggling to learn Anatomy & Physiology Subjects. Hence we provide Notes as Solved Question Paper which are very important for your examinations.

Give functions of mitochondria & endoplasmic reticulum. (1 mark each)

 Mitochondria is known as power house of cell. They are involved in cellular respiration, the process by which chemical energy is made available in the cell. When nutrients and oxygen come in contact with the oxidative enzymes of mitochondria, they combine to form CO2, water & energy, this is in the form of ATP. (aerobic oxidation)

  • Endoplasmic reticulum are of two types. Smooth and rough. Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and steroid hormones and associated with detoxification of drugs. Rough ER is studded with ribosomes. It is a site of synthesis of proteins that are exported from

b)  Define tissue. Classify connective tissue. (def. 1 mark, classification 1 mark)

 10 Basic Definitions ofPharmacy

Groups of cells which have the same physical characteristics and similar functions are termed as tissues.

Classification of connective tissue:

  1. Connective tissue proper: i) Areolar tissu ii) Adipose tissue

        iii) White fibrous tissue     iv) Yellow elastic tissue

  1. Specialised connective tissue:         i) Bone ii) Cartilage
  1. Vascular tissue:       i) Blood                             ii) Lymphoid tissue

c)  What are true ribs & false ribs? ( 2 marks)

 There are 12 pairs of ribs. Anteriorly, the first seven pairs of ribs are attached to the sternum via costal cartilage & are known as true ribs. The next three ribs are attached indirectly via seventh rib & known as false ribs

d)  Write composition of blood. (2 marks)

 

Composition

It is composed of a liquid matrix plasma (55%) & different cells suspended in it (45%).

Plasma- CompositionWater-90-92%, plasma proteins, inorganic salts, nutrients, waste material, hormones & gases.

Blood cells – Red blood cells or erythrocytes, white blood cells or leucocytes and platelets or thrombocytes

B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS

e)  Draw and label lymph node 

Lymph node D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem - Anatomy & Physiology Notes

 

f)  What is SA node & AV node? (1 mark each)

 

SA node (sinoatrial node) This is small mass of specialized neuromuscular cells in the walls of myocardium of right atrium near the opening of the superior vena cava. It is known as pacemaker of the heart as it initiates the impulses.

 AV node- (atrioventricular node): This is the mass of neuromuscular cells in the wall of the atrial septum near the AV valves. Normally it conducts the impulses that are originated by SA node. It is known as secondary pace maker as it generates the impulses when there is problem with SA node.

g)  Give the functions of CSF. (4 functions, 2 marks)

  1. To support & protect brain & spinal
  1. Maintain uniform pressure around
  1. Acts as cushion & shock absorber
  1. Keeps brain & spinal cord

h)  Define (any two) (each 1 mark)

 Presbyopia: As a process of aging, the lens loses its elasticity; the distant objects are seen clear but close objects are

  1. Cataract: This is opacity of lens which may be age related or congenital bilateral or unilateral.
  • Hypermetropia: Also known as farsightedness. Far vision is normal but close vision is blurred, because the near image is focused behind the retina as eye ball length is too short or due to flattened

                                                                            

i)   Write the functions of hypothalamus. ( 2 marks)

 

  1. It controls the hormone release from pituitary
  1. Control of autonomic nervous system, appetite & satiety, thirst, body , emotions, sexual behavior & biological clock.

j)  Name any two cranial nerves with their function. (Any 2, 2 marks)

 

Olfactory –                                       sense of smell

Optic  –                                          sense of light/vision

Occulomotor –                                 movement of the eyeball, change shape of lens, Constriction of pupil, raising the upper lid.

Trochlear –                                       movement of the eye

Trigeminal –                                    receives impulses of pain temp. & touch for face & head, stimulates muscle of mastication

Abducent –                                      abduction of eye ball

Facial –                                          conveys impulse from taste buds & supplies muscles of facial expression

Auditory (vestibulocochlear) –      conveys impulses to the cerebellum for posture &

Balance & sense of hearing

Glossopharyngeal –                       Sense of taste, production of saliva and movement of

Pharynx

Vagus –                                         Secretion, movement in organs

Accessory –                                  Movements of head, shoulder, pharynx and larynx

Hypoglossal –                              Supplies to the muscle of tongue & muscle surrounding the hyoid bone & helps in swallowing & speech.

                                                                             06

k)  What are auditory ossicles? (1 mark) Write their function. (1 mark)

Auditory ossicles: Malleus, incus & stapes are the three small bones in the middle ear extending from tympanic membrane to the oval window. Sound vibrations of tympanic membrane are amplified & transmitted by these bones.

l)  What is B.P.? Name the factors affecting B.P. (def 1 mark and any 4 factors 1 mark)

B.P is the force or lateral pressure which the blood exerts on the wall of blood vessels. Factors affecting B.P. are exercise, nutrition, age, stress, circulating hormones, autonomic nervous system activity.

Q2.  Solve any four of the following:                                                          12

  1. Define respiration. Write the process of external respiration. (def 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Respiration is a process of supply of oxygen present in atmosphere into the body & excretion for carbon dioxide.

External respiration- (cycle of breathing)

The normal human has 12-15 breath per min. Each breath consists of inspiration, expiration & pause.

Inspiration: The simultaneous contraction of intercostal muscles & diaphragm increases the capacity of thoracic cavity. This reduces the pressure in the lungs. To equalise the pressure the air from atmosphere enters the lungs. The process of inspiration is active as it needs energy for muscle contraction. It lasts for 2 sec.

Expiration: Relaxation of intercostal muscles & diaphragm results in decrease in the space in the lungs. As a result, the pressure inside the lungs increases as compared to atmospheric pressure. The air from the lungs is expelled from the lungs. This process is passive as does not require energy. The expiration lasts for 3 sec. After expiration there is pause & then the next cycle begins.

                                                                           

b) Write steps involved in urine formation. Describe selective reabsorption. (steps 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

There are three processes of urine formation:

  1. Glomerular filtration
  2. Selective reabsorption
  3. Tubular secretion.

Selective reabsorption:

Selective reabsorption is the process by which the composition and volume of the glomerular filtrate is altered during its passage through the convoluted tubules, Loop of Henle and the collecting tubule. The purpose of this process is to reabsorb those constituents of the filtrate which are essential to the body, maintain the fluid and electrolyte balance and the alkalinity of blood.

Some constituents of the glomerular filtrate e.g. glucose; vitamins and amino acids get completely reabsorbed into the blood. These substances are called high- threshold substances.

Low-threshold substances like urea, uric acid are absorbed slightly.

Some substances e.g. creatinine are not at all absorbed.(no-threshold substances) Parathormone from parathyroid gland & calcitonin from thyroid gland regulate reabsorption of calcium & phosphate,

ADH from posterior pituitary increases the permeability of the tubule & increases water reabsorption.

Aldosterone by adrenal cortex increases reabsorption of sodium.

Pharmacology Notes: PPT PDF – ANTICANCER DRUGS

c)What is muscle tone? Give the functions of muscle. (muscle tone 1 mark, functions 2 marks)

Muscle tone is a sustained partial muscle contraction that allows maintenance of posture of the body.

                                                                             08

Functions of the muscles are-

Skeletal muscles contract & help the movement of the body & stability of the joint. It also helps in generation of heat.Intercostal muscles help in respiration.

  • Smooth muscles helps contraction & relaxation of blood vessels & controls blood flow & movement of the food in the alimentary
  • Cardiac muscles help in the functioning of

d)Give the composition & function of gastric juice. (comp. 1 mark, functions 2 marks)

Composition of gastric juice:

Water, mineral salt, mucus, HCl, intrinsic factor, pepsinogen Functions of gastric juice-

  1. Water liquifies the food.
  2. HCl acidifies the food & stops the action of salivary
  3. HCl kills the
  4. Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by HCl. This digests protein to smaller
  5. Intrinsic factor absorbs vit. B12 from small
  6. Mucus prevents mechanical injury to the stomach

e)              Name hormones of adrenal cortex & mention their functions. (names 1 mark, functions 2 marks)

Adrenal cortex produces three groups of hormones namely glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoid & androgens.

Glucocorticoids: Cortisol or hydrocortisone is the main glucocorticoid. Others are corticosterone & cortisone.

They regulate metabolism like gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone.) It regulates water & electrolyte balance. It increases the reabsorption of Na ions.

Androgens: The compounds secreted are insignificant to show any action.

                                                                             

f) Define reproduction. Name the different reproductive organs of male reproductive system. (def 1 mark, organs 2 marks)

Reproduction is the process of formation of offspring OR It is defined as process by which genetic material is passed from one generation to another & thus maintains continuation of species.

The male reproductive system consists of the following organs:

Testis            2 Epididymis 2 Spermatic cords 2
Seminal vesicles 2 Ejaculatory ducts 2 Prostate gland 1
Urethra & Penis 1

Q3.  Solve any four of the following:                                                          12

  1. Give differences between striated and smooth muscles. (any 6 points, 3 marks)
Sr. No Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle
1. It is also known as striated Muscle Non‐ striated muscle
2. It is less extensible It is more extensible
3. The fibres (cell) are cylindrical and has

many nuclei

The cells are spindle shaped

with only one central nucleus

4. They are under the control of our will. (voluntary) They are not under the

control of our will.(involuntary)

5. The fibrous tissue enclosing

the whole muscle extends beyond the fibres to become the tendon which attaches the muscle to the bone or skin.

Bundles of fibres form sheets of muscle.
6. There is distinct sarcolemma No distinct sarcolemma
7. Present in tongue, arms or hands, legs,

etc

Present in oesophagus, stomach,

intestine, etc

 

                                                                            

b)             Define: ( 1 mark each)

 

  1. Gout: Inflammation of joints due to deposition of sodium urate crystals in the joints.
  2. Arthritis: Chronic disease that results in pain and restricted movement of
  • Sprain: Joint injury in which some of the fibres of supporting ligament are damaged OR If a ligament is stretched or torn; the injury is called a

c)              Name different type of blood group. Explain the term universal donor and universal recipient. (name 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Different blood groups are: A, B, AB and O

Blood group “O” is called as Universal donor and Blood group “AB” is called as

Universal recipient.

Individuals have different antigens on the surface of their RBCs. These antigens determine their blood groups.

Blood group ‘O’ has neither A nor B antigen on their cell membrane. There will be no agglutination and thus blood can be safely transfused into A, B, AB and O. but can receive from only O.Therefore, blood group O is called universal donor.

Whereas blood group AB has neither antiA nor antiB antibodies. Transfusion of any group into these individuals is safe since there are no antibodies to react with them. But can donate only to AB. Hence it is called as universal recipient.

                                                                             11

d)             Define cardiac cycle. Write various events in cardiac cycle. (def 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Cardiac cycle: The events which occur in the heart during the circulation of blood during each heart beat is called cardiac cycle OR The series of events during one heart beat is known as cardiac cycle.

Events in cardiac cycle:

  • Atrial systole (0.1 sec)
  • Ventricular systole (0.3 sec)
  • Complete cardiac diastole (0.4 sec)

Description of cardiac cycle (2 marks)

The superior & inferior vena cava transport the deoxygenated blood into right atrium. At the same time four pulmonary veins transport oxygenated blood into the left atrium. The impulses from the SA node spreads over the atria, atria contracts, the AV valves open and & blood flows to ventricles. ( atrial systole-0.1 sec)

When the wave of contraction reaches AV node, it is stimulated & emits impulses which spreads over AV bundle, bundle branches & purkinje fibres resulting in contraction of ventricles pumping the blood into pulmonary artery & the aorta. (ventricular systole 0.3 sec). After the contraction of the ventricles there is complete cardiac diastole(0.4 sec) when both atria & ventricles relax. After this the next cycle begins.

e)   What is reflex action? Draw a well-labelled diagram of reflex arc. (Reflex action 1 ½ marks, diagram 1 ½ marks)

Reflex action is an automatic motor response given by the spinal cord to the sensory stimulus without involving brain in action. They are a part of defensive mechanisms of the body.

                                                                             12

Important reflex actions are:

  1. Quick closing of an eyelid if eye is
  2. Sudden withdrawal of hand if fingers touch something
  3. Quick recovery of the balance of the body to prevent falling after a
  4. Sudden coughing attack if a food particle is

Diagram of reflex arc:

                                                                             13

f)                Mention layers of epidermis of skin. State functions of skin. ( names of layers 1 mark, any 4 functions 2 marks)

Layers of epidermis:

Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum and stratum granulosum & stratum germinativum Functions of skin:

  1. Protection – It forms the water proof layer & protects the inner delicate structures. It acts as the barrier against the invasion of the microbes, chemicals &dehydration. The melanin pigment protects against the harmful UV
  2. Regulation of body temp.- The temp. is constant at 36.8o When the metabolic rate of the body increases the body temp increases & vice versa. To ensure constant body temp, a balance between heat production & heat loss is maintained by the skin.
  3. Formation of vit. D.- 7-dehydroxycholesterol is present in the skin. The UV light from the sun converts it to vit.
  4. Sensation – It contains nerve endings of many sensory nerves which act as organ of sensation of touch, temp, pressure and
  5. Absorption- Some drugs & chemicals are absorbed through the
  6. Excretion- Skin is a minor excretory organ & excretes NaCl, urea & sub. like garlic.

Q4.  Solve any four of the following:                                                          12

  1. Define and give normal values: (1 mark for each)
  2. Tidal volume: It is the volume of air moved in & out of lungs during normal breathing. Normal value is 500

                                                                             14

  1. Inspiratory reserve volume: It is the amount of air that can be breathed in and above the tidal volume by the deepest possible inspiration. Normal value is 1800 – 3000
  • Residual volume: It is the volume of air remaining in lungs after forced Normal value is 1.2 L in males and 1.1 L in females.

  Give physiology of neuromuscular transmission. ( 3 marks)

When a nerve impulse reaches neuromuscular junction, passage of action potential over the sole feet causes the vesicles of acetylcholine to rupture into the synaptic cleft. The acetylcholine acts on the cell membrane to increase its permeability.

This allows spontaneous leakage of Na causing endplate potential. When the endplate potential increases, it stimulates the entire muscle fibre causing an action potential to travel in both directions along the fibre. When the action potential spread to inside of muscle fibre then Ca ions are released. This causes contraction of muscle fibres. Immediately after action potential is over, the previously released Ca ions recombine with reticulum and the muscle contraction stops.

The enzyme acetylcholinesterase present in the synaptic cleft.  causes hydrolysis of acetylcholine. The muscle fibre is repolaised again to receive successive stimuli.

d)             Describe the structure of stomach. ( str 2 marks, diag 1 mark)

 Stomach is a J-shaped dilated portion of the alimentary canal. It is continuous with the oesophagus at cardiac sphincter and with duodenum at pyloric sphincter. It has 2 curvatures – lesser curvature and greater curvature. The stomach is divided into three regions- fundus, body & antrum. There are three layers of smooth muscle fibres outer longitudinal, the middle circular layer & the inner oblique fibres. This helps the churning movement & peristaltic movement.

                                                                             16

Diagram

:

e)              What is endocrine and exocrine gland? Name the endocrine glands. (each def 1 mark, any 4 endocrine glands 1 mark)

Endocrine glands are ductless glands which release their secretions (hormones) directly into the blood.

Exocrine gland: The glands that discharge their secretions through the duct are known as exocrine glands.

Endocrine glands: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas (islets of Langerhans). adrenal glands, pineal gland, testes in male and ovaries in female.

                                                                             17

f)                Define menstruation. Explain proliferative phase of menstruation.(def 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Menstruation: This is the series of events occurring regularly in females every 26-30 days throughout the child bearing age. The cycle consists of menstrual phase for 4 days, proliferative phase for 10 days & secretary phase for 14 days.

Proliferative phase: It is characterized by release of oestrogen by the maturing ovarian follicle under the influence of FSH from the anterior pituitary. Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium in preparation of the fertilized ovum. The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication and this is accompanied by an increase in the number of mucus-secreting glands and blood capillaries. This phase lasts for 10 days and stops when ovulation occurs and oestrogen production is inhibited i.e. when the ovarian follicle ruptures.

Q.5  Solve any four of the following:        (12 marks, 03 marks each)

 

  1. State the factors which accelerate and retard the clotting of blood. (3 marks, 1.5 marks each)

There are various factors which accelerate and retard the clotting of blood.

(1)   Factors accelerating clotting are( any 3 points, 1.5 marks)

 

  • During menstruation and parturition
  • Injury to the walls of the blood vessels: An injury in the form of cut bleeds more freely than the injury by the
  • The venom of viper snakes
  • Higher temperature (above 46 0 C)
  • Presence of calcium salts

                                                                             18

(2)   Factors retarding clotting are (any 3 points, 1.5 marks):

  • In clinical condition like haemophilia, liver disease, afibrinogenemia, Christmas disease,
  • Removal calcium ions from the blood by addition of sodium or potassium or citrate

ions.

(c ) Calcium deficiency in blood

(d)Lower temperature: However, lower temperature causes contraction of blood vessels. ( e)Deficiency of vitamin K

(b)   Describe how circulation of blood takes place through heart chambers. (3 marks)

 

The superior vena cava (for upper body) and inferior vena cava (for lower body) receive deoxygenated /impure blood from various part of the body through different veins. This deoxygenated/ impure blood they pour into the right atrium of heart. The blood from right atrium enters the right ventricle through a tricuspid valve, which prevent back flow of blood from ventricle into atrium.

The deoxygenated/ impure blood from right ventricle is forced into pulmonary artery through pulmonary valve. The pulmonary arteries divide into two branches each enters the right and left lungs. In the lungs, the red blood cells (RBCs) release carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. This oxygenated blood from right and left lungs is collected by four pulmonary veins and poured into left atrium. From left atrium this blood enters into left ventricle through bicuspid valve which prevents back flow of blood into left atrium.This oxygenated blood from left ventricle is forced into the aorta through aortic valve which prevent back flow of blood into left ventricle.

  • Give the various functions of medulla oblongata. (03 marks, 1mark for each function The vital centres consisting of group of cells associated with autonomic reflex activity lie in Medulla oblongata. They are,

                                                                             19

  • Cardiac centre– The cardiac centre controls the rate and force of cardiac contraction and blood
  • Respiratory centre – The respiratory centre controls the rate and depth of respiration. Nerve impulses pass to the phrenic and intercostal muscles which stimulate the contraction of diaphragm and intercostal muscles, thus initiating
  • Vasomotor centre – This controls the diameter of blood vessels especially small arteries and arterioles.
  • Reflex centre – When irritating substance are present in stomach or respiratory tract, nerve impulse pass on to the medulla oblongata stimulating the reflex centre which initiate reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing and

(d)   Explain retina of eye. (3marks)

 

  • Retina is the innermost layer of the eye. It gets stimulated by the light rays. It is composed of several layers of nerve cell body & the axons. There are light sensitive cells mainly of two types: the rods and
  • The entire retina contains about 7 million cones and 75 to 150 million
  • Rods function mainly in dim light and provide black-and-white vision, The rods have rhodopsin or visual purple is photosensitive pigment. It gets bleached with light & gets regenerated by vit. A. The rods are present more in the periphery of the
  • Cones sensitive to bright light & colour. cone opsins (also known as photopsins or iodopsin) present in cone cells, are used in colour
  • The central retina has macula lutea or yellow spot made up of only cone cells. It has central depression called fovea centralis.All the nerve fibres of retina form the optic nerve. The small area of the retina where the optic nerve leave the eye is known as optic disc or blind spot as no light sensitive cells are present here.

                                                                             20

(e)  Define nephritis. Give function of kidney. (Definition 1 mark, any 4 functions 2 marks)

 

Nephritis: Nephritis refers to inflammation of one or both kidneys due to infection or autoimmune disease.

Functions of kidney are:

  1. Formation of urine –Each kidney consist of nephron which filter waste product from blood & helps in urine ,
  2. Maintenance of acid base balance it helps maintaining pH by excretion of H+ ions & reabsorption of HCO3
  3. Maintenance of electrolyte balance
  4. Maintenance of blood pressure. it regulates B.P. by Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone system
  5. Maintenance of water Balance.it helps in maintaining water balance with the help of
  6. Formation of erythropoietin hormone for erythropoeisis

(f)  Define (3 marks, 1 mark for each definition)

 

  1. Mastication: It is the process by which food is chewed and mixed with saliva to form a soft mass or bolus which is swallowed. OR Mastication means chewing process takes place in mouth cavity.
  2. Chyme: The thick semisolid mass of partially digested food that is passed from the stomach to the
  3. ii) Digestion: The conversion of complex food ( carbohydrate , proteins & fats) into simpler form (glucose, amino acids & fatty acid) by mechanical breakdown & chemical digestion so that it is easily absorbed into the blood and utilized for energy.

                                                                             21

Q.6  Solve any four of the following: (16 marks, 4 marks each)

 

  • State eight (8) functions of liver. (0.5 marks for each function)

 

Functions of liver

  1. Secretion of bile: Bile salts are helpful in digestion and absorption of fats by its emulsification.
  2. Glycogenic function: The hepatic cells by the action of enzymes convert glucose into glycogen and it is then stored in the
  3. Formation of urea: Hepatic cells by the action of the enzyme cause deamination of amino acid, i.e. amine group is set free which forms
  4. Metabolism of fat: Whenever energy is needed, the saturated stored fat is converted to a form in which it can be used to provide
  5. Formation of RBCs in foetal
  6. Destruction of RBCs forming bile pigments and
  7. Formation of plasma
  8. Formation of heparin, a natural anticoagulant in the
  9. Storage of iron and vitamin B
  10. Maintenance of body temperature: As a number of chemical reactions occur in the liver, heat is generated which is helpful in maintaining body
  11. Excretion of toxic substances: The toxic substances entering the body through alimentary canal are destroyed in

OR

 

 

 

                                                                             22

  1. Carbohydrate metabolism: It helps in maintaining plasma glucose level with the help of insulin &
  2. Fat metabolism: Stored fat can be converted to a form in which it can be used by the tissue to provide
  • Protein metabolism: Deamination of amino -removes nitrogenous portion from amino acid not required for formation of new protein. Urea is formed from the nitrogenous portion which is excreted in urine. Break down of nucleic acids to form uric acid which is excreted in urine. Transamination: Removes the nitrogenous portion of amino acid & attaches it to carbohydrate molecule forming new non-essential amino acid. .
  1. Synthesis of plasma protein & most blood clotting factors from amino
  2. Breakdown of RBCs & defense against This is carried out by Kupffer cells.
  3. Detoxification of drugs & noxious
  • Inactivation of hormones
  • Production of heat
  1. Secretion of bile
  2. Storage of glycogen, iron, copper, & water fat soluble vit-A, D,E, K, soluble vit. Like B12.

(b)      What is hepatic portal circulation? Give its importance. (4marks; circulation 3 marks, importance 1 mark)

The portal circulation (3 marks)

In all parts of the body, the venous blood passes from the tissues to the heart by the direct route.

But, in the portal circulation, venous blood from the capillary bed of the abdominal parts, the spleen & the pancreas passes to the liver via the portal vein. The portal vein is formed by union of gastric vein from stomach, superior & inferior mesenteric veins from small and large intestine, splenic vein from spleen & cystic vein from gall bladder. The blood

                                                                             23

passes through the secondary capillary bed, the hepatic sinusoid in the liver before entering the general circulation via the inferior vena cava.

Importance of portal circulation (1mark)

Blood with the high concentration of nutrients absorbed from the stomach & intestine goes to liver first. In the liver certain modifications takes place including the blood nutrient level. The venous blood then leaves liver via hepatic vein & joins the inferior vena cava.

(c)      State functions of Semen and Placenta (4 marks, 2 marks each) Functions of Semen: (2 marks)

  1. Increase motility and fertility of spermatozoa.

 

  1. Semen is slightly alkaline, to neutralize the acidity of
  1. Prostaglandin present causes contraction of
  1. It contains nutrients to nourish and support the sperm during their journey through the female reproductive

Functions of placenta: (2 marks)

 

  1. To provide the foetus with nourishment and removal of waste material from the
  1. To act as the foetal lung by providing oxygenation of the fetal blood
  1. The placenta also acts as a barrier in preventing certain micro-organisms of disease reaching the fetus thus protects the
  2. The placenta helps the ovaries in the production of estrogen & progesterone hormones necessary for the continuation and maintenance of

                                                                             24

(d)What is sensory and motor neuron? (1+1 marks). Draw a well labeled diagram of typical neuron (2 marks).

Sensory neuron (1 mark): They carry information from the body to the spinal cord. The impulses may then pass to the brain or to connector neurons of reflex arcs in the spinal cord.

Motor neuron (1 mark): They originate in the brain, spinal cord and autonomic ganglia. They transmit impulses to the effector organs; muscles and glands.

(e)      Write the effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on:(4 marks, 2marks each )

  • Pupils:(0.5 + 0.5 marks)

 Sympathetic stimulation: Dilation of pupils causing mydriasis.

Parasymp.  stimulation: Constriction of pupils causing miosis.

(ii)   Bronchioles 🙁 0.5+0.5 marks)

Sympathetic stimulation: Bronchodilation allowing greater amount of air to enter the lungs at each inspiration.

Parasymp. stimulation: Bronchoconstriction (Broncho-spasm)

  • Blood vessel (1+1 marks) Sympathetic stimulation: Coronary artery: Vasodilation Skeletal blood vessels: Vasodilation

Other blood vessels: Vasoconstriction. Parasympathetic stimulation: Coronary artery: Vasoconstriction Skeletal blood vessels: Vasoconstriction Other blood vessels: Vasodilation

(e)  Explain the role of insulin and glucagon in the body. (4 marks, 2 marks each) Role of insulin (3 marks):

Role of insulin

  1. It increases the uptake of glucose by the
  1. Increases the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver & skeletal
  1. It increases the uptake of amino acids by the
  1. It promotes the synthesis of fatty acids & storage of fats in adipose tissue
  2. decreases
  3. Prevents breakdown of protein, fat & gluconeogenesis

Role of glucagon (1 mark): Its function is to increase blood sugar level. Whenever the blood sugar level falls below the normal the glycogen stored in the liver is broken down to glucose by the hormone glucagon.

Thus the two hormones help to maintain the blood sugar level constant.

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Skeletal Muscle Relaxants Drugs Classification Uses Pharmacology PPT + PDF Mechanism of Action

Skeletal muscle relaxant mechanism of Action 1

Skeletal Muscle Relaxants Drugs

Skeletal Muscle Relaxants

  • The main clinical use of skeletal muscle relaxant is it acts an adjuvant in surgical anesthesia to obtain relaxation of skeletal muscles à this minimizes the risk of respiratory & cardiovascular depression
  • These drugs block the post-synaptic actions of ACh at motor end plate
  • On the basis of their site & mechanism of action…these are classified as
  1. Peripherally acting muscle relaxants[These act peripherally at neuromuscular junction]
  2. a) Non-Depolarizing Blockers (Competitive Blockers)
  • Basis:These drugs prevent the access of ACh to NM receptor of motor end plate à prevent its depolarization
  1. Long Acting: d-Tubocurarine (d-TC), Metocurine, Doxacurium, pancuronium, pipecuronium, gallamine
  2. Intermediate acting: Atracurium, Cisatracurium, Vecuronium, Rcuronium

d-Tubocurarine: – Not clinical used do to its histaminic effects. • Succinylcholine: – SCh is the most commonly used muscle relaxant for passing tracheal tube. It induces rapid, complete and predictable paralysis with spontaneous recovery in ~5 min. – Occasionally SCh is used by continuous i.v. infusion for producing controlled muscle relaxation of longer duration. – It should be avoided in younger children unless absolutely necessary, because risk of hyperkalaemia and cardiac arrhythmia is higher

Pancuronium: – It is a synthetic steroidal compound, ~5 times more potent and longer acting than d-TC. – Because of longer duration of action, needing reversal, its use is now restricted to prolonged operations, especially neurosurgery. • Pipecuronium: – Muscle relaxant with a slow onset and long duration of action; steroidal in nature; recommended for prolonged surgeries. Nondepolarizing blockers – Individual compounds

 Vecuronium: – It is a most commonly used muscle relaxant for routine surgery and in intensive care units.. • Atracurium: – Four times less potent than pancuronium and shorter acting. • Rocuronium: – Muscle relaxant with a rapid onset and intermediate duration of action which can be used as alternative to SCh for tracheal intubation without the disadvantages of depolarizing block and cardiovascular changes. Nondepolarizing blockers – Individual compounds

 iii.      Short Acting: Mivacurine, Rapacuronium

  1. b) Depolarizing Blockers (persistent depolarizers)
  • Basis:They produce an excessive depolarization which persists for longer duration at NMJ à because they are resistant to hydrolysis by true AChE present in synaptic cleft
  • Succinyl Choline
  1. Centrally Acting Muscle Relaxants

  • Basis:These drugs reduce skeletal muscle tone à by selective action in the cerebrospinal axis without altering consciousness
  • Carisoprodol, Chlorzoxazone, Diazepam, Clonazepam, Baclofen, Tizanidine

III. Directly Acting Muscle Relaxants

  • Basis:These directly interfere with the contractile mechanisms of voluntary muscle
  • Dantrolene
  1. Misc Group
  • Quinine, Botulinum toxins A & B

Comparison of d-Tubocurarine & Succinylcholine

Parameters d-Tubocurarine Succinylcholine
1.Mechanism Competitive blockade at NM receptors Persistent depolarization of NM receptors followed by their desensitization
2.Potency ++ (Moderate) + (less)
3.Onset 4-5 min 1 min
4.Duration 30 – 50 min with no muscle sore 5 – 6 min followed by muscle sore
5.Type of Relaxation Progressive flaccid paralysis Initial fasciculations followed by flaccid paralysis
6.Effect of Neostigmine Reversal i.e antagonism Potentiation on effect
7.NM  blocking drugs Potentiation on effect No effect
8.Hypothermia Decreases effect Increased effect
9.Histamine release ++ (Moderate) Negligible
10.    BP Hypotension No effect
11.    Cardiac Muscarinic receptors No effect Stimulates. Bradycardia in low doses, tachycardia in large doses
12.    Respiratory effects Bronchospasm Nil
13.    GIT Effects Constipation Nausea, Vomitting
14.    Serum K+ levels No change Hyperkalaemia
15.    Intraocular pressure No change Raised
16.    Pharmacogenetic variation in metabolism Nil (it is excreted through kidney) Metabolized by pseudocholinesterase (exhibit prolonged apnoea)
17.    Other Nil Malignanat hyperthermia



Mechanism of Action of Skeletal Muscle Relaxants Drugs:

Skeletal muscle relaxant Drugs mechanism of Action PDF MOAPPT

Skeletal muscle relaxant mechanism of Action 1 Skeletal muscle relaxant mechanism of Action PPT



Baclofen

  • It is orally active GABA-mimetic drug àwhich acts as a GABA agonist at GABAB receptors
  • The GABABreceptors are G-protein coupled receptors à which hyperpolarize neurons by increasing K+ conductance & reduce Ca+2 conductance
  • Its actions àresults from an action at spinal level where it inhibits both monosynaptic & polysynaptic reflexes
  • Activation of GABAB recptors in the brain àresults in hyperpolarisation in the cord & brain à which interfere with the release of excitatory neurotransmitters
  • It also reduces pain associated with spastic conditions ßas it inhibits the release of substance-P in the spinal cord

Baclofen Therapeutic Uses

  • To relieve painful spasticity in multiple sclerosis
  • It is also used to relieve spasticity from spinal injuries but it is not very useful in cerebral palsy
  • It can also serve as an important substitute to treat trigeminal neuralgia & tardive dyskinesia
  • It imrves he quality f life of patients suffering with severe spasticity & pain

Baclofen Side Effects

  • Sedation, drowsiness, muscle weakness, ataxia
  • Sudden withdrawal may precipitate anxiety, tachycardia & Hallucinations
  • It is teratogenic & risk in pregnancy

Dantrolene

  • It is a phenytoin analogue àbut its site for antispastic action lies ouside the CNS
  • It acts directly at the contractile mechanisms of voluntary muscle by reducing depolarization induced Ca+2 release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • The muscle fibers still respond to nerve stimulus àthe contractile responses are reduced but not absolutely abolished by dantrolene à the net result is muscle weakness rather than paralysis
  • It also facilitates GABA which results in the depression of brain stem reticular functions & efferent motor neuron activity àit produces sedation but no selective action on polysynaptic reflexes

Dantrolene Therapeutic Uses

  • It is used to treat spasticity resulting from upper motor neuron lesions such as spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis & cerebral palsy
  • It is the drug of choice for the treatment of malignant hyperthermia
  • It is also used in the treatment of neurolept malignant syndrome
  • Orally it is poorly absorbed but absorption is consistent
  • Plasma half-life is 9-12 hrs
  • A/Es– generalized muscle weakness, sedation, diarrhea, hepatitis after prolonged use

References •

Tripathi KD. Essentials of Medical Pharmacology, 7th Ed, New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publisher (P) Ltd, 2013.

Pharmacology Notes: PPT PDF – ANTICANCER DRUGS – What is Cancer? Types/ Causes

Pharmacology Notes PPT PDF - ANTICANCER DRUGS - What is Cancer Types Causes

Pharmacology Notes

ANTICANCER DRUGS

Cancer cells have lost the normal regulatory mechanisms that control cell growth and multiplication.

What is Cancer?

• Cancer cell have lost their ability to differentiate (that means to specialize). Cancer refers to any one of a large number of diseases characterized by the development of abnormal cells that divide uncontrollably and have the ability to infiltrate and destroy normal body tissue. Cancer often has the ability to spread throughout your body.

Types of Cancer?

• Benign cancer cell stay at the same place
Malignant cancer cells invade new tissues to set up secondary tumors, a process known as metastasis

Causes of cancer

Common Causes of Cancer:

Smoking and Tobacco. Diet and Physical Activity. Sun and Other Types of Radiation. Viruses and Other Infections

• Chemicals causing cancer are called mutagens
• Cancer can be caused by chemicals, life style (smoking), and viruses

Gene mutations

A gene mutation can instruct a healthy cell to Allow rapid growth or Fail to stop uncontrolled cell growth or cells lose the controls (tumor suppressor genes) or even Make mistakes when repairing DNA errors

Definitions of cancer

genes that are related to cause cancer are called oncogenes.
Genes that become onogenic upon mutation are called protooncogenes.

Pharmacology Notes PPT PDF - ANTICANCER DRUGS - What is Cancer Types Causes

General signs and symptoms of cancer

Unexplained weight loss
Fever
Fatigue
Pain
Skin changes
Darker looking skin (hyperpigmentation)
Yellowish skin and eyes (jaundice)
Reddened skin (erythema)
Itching (pruritis)
Excessive hair growth
Change in bowel habits or bladder function
Long-term constipation, diarrhea,
Sores that do not heal
White patches inside the mouth or white spots on the tongue
Unusual bleeding or discharge
Thickening or lump in the breast or other parts of the body
Indigestion or trouble swallowing
Recent change in a wart or mole or any new skin change
Nagging cough or hoarseness

Top 10 Anti Cancer Drugs

anti cancer drugs list ppt pharmacology

List of Anti cancer Drugs

ALKYLATING AGENTS:

BUSULFAN
CARMUSTINE (BCNU)
CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE
DACARBAZINE
LOMUSTINE (CCNU)
MECHLORETHAMINE
MELPHALAN
THIOTEPA

NATURAL PRODUCTS

BLEOMYCIN
DACTINOMYCIN
DAUNORUBICIN
DOXORUBICIN
ETOPOSIDE (VP-16)
IRINOTECAN
MITOMYCIN C
PACLITAXEL
VINBLASTINE
VINCRISTINE

MISCELLANEOUS:

Angiostatin
AMSACRINE
L-asparaginase
Bortezomib
CARBOPLATIN
CISPLATIN
Erlotinib
Gefitinib
Hydroxyurea
Imatinib
Pentostatin
PROCARBAZINE
Thalidomide

ANTIMETABOLITES:

Azathioprine
5-fluorouracil
6-thioguanine
6-mecaptopurine
Cytarabine (ara-c)
Gemcitabine
Methotrexate

IMMUNOTHERAPY:

Alemtuzumab
Aminoglutethimide
Bevacizumab
Cetuximab
Cyclosporine
Dexamethasone
Edrecolomab
Gemtuzumab
Ibritumomab
Interferon α
Interleukin 2
Interleukin-12
Prednisone
Rituximab
Tacrolimus (fk506)
Tositumomab
Trastuzumab
Tumour necrosis factor α

HORMONES and RELATED AGENTS:

Aminoglutethimide
Anastrozole
Exemestane
Flutamide
Letrozole
Goserelin
Leuprolide
Letrozole
Tamoxifen

SUPPORTING AGENTS:

Allopurinol
Erythropoietin
Filgrastim
Interleukin 11
Leucovorin
MESNA
Sargramostim (GM-CSF)

anti cancer drugs ppt pdf notes b pharm m pharm medicos d pharm pharmacology

Pharmacology anti cancer drugs ppt pdf notes b pharm m pharm medicos d pharm

anti neoplastic anti cancer drugs ppt pdf notes b pharm m pharm medicos d pharm

Anticancer drugs pharmacology pdf anticancer drugs list pdf classification of anticancer drugs wikipedia anticancer drugs classification ppt classification of anticancer drugs with mechanism of action classification of anticancer agents anticancer drugs classification mnemonics top 10 anti cancer drugs.

Geographical Indication – IPR Notes PDF PPR Pharmawiki.in M Pharm

Geographical Indication - IPR Notes PDF PPR

Here you Get:

What is meant by geographical indication?
Why is geographical indications and appellations of origin important?
What is a protected geographical indication?
What is GI registration?

A geographical indication is basically a notice stating that a given product originates in a given geographical area. An appellation of origin is a more precise form of geographical indicator, which specifies that the product has qualities that are derived specifically from the fact that it is made in a particular region.
As stated above a geographical indication is a broad term, which includes appellation of origin, indication of source, and geographical indication in strict sense. In the literature, the term geographical indication is generally used in its broader sense to embody all these terms (appellation of origin, indication of source, and geographical indication in strict sense. Geographical indications can be protected nationally either by decree or by a register.
Internationally they can be protected by reciprocal arrangements between countries or in the case of appellations of origin by the Lisbon Agreement. Furthermore the TRIPS Agreement requires all members of the World Trade Organization to protect geographical indications.

The use of geographical indications is an important method of indicating the origin of goods and services. One of the aims of their use is to promote commerce by informing the customer of the origin of the products. Often this may imply a certain quality, which the customer may be looking for. They can be used for industrial and agricultural products. Protection of such indications is on a national basis but there are various international treaties that assist the protection in a range of countries.

Geographical Indication - IPR Notes PDF PPR

Geographical indications in a broad sense include indications of source, appellation of origin, and geographical indication (in the strict sense). It should be pointed out that the Paris Convention does not use in its terminology the term geographical indication; it rather utilizes the terms,indications of source and appellations of origin.
An indication of source means any expression or sign used to indicate that a product or service originates in a country, a region, and a specific place where the product originated. Example: Made in Japan.

An appellation of origin means the geographical name of a country, region, specific place which serves to designate a product originating therein, the characteristic qualities of which are due exclusively or essentially to the geographical environment, including natural or human factors or both.
Example: Champagne.

Got for:

What is meant by geographical indication?
Why is geographical indications and appellations of origin important?
What is a protected geographical indication?
What is GI registration?