INTRA-UTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES Family Planning India

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INTRA-UTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE
The intra-uterine device (IUD) is the second most commonly used family planning method, after voluntary female sterilization.
The IUD is one of the best methods of contraception during lactation because of its high efficacy and its lack of effect on breast milk or infant growth.

Generations of  intra-uterine device

• First: inert devices e.g., Lippes loop
• Second: all the copper-containing devices
• Third: hormonal devices e.g., Progestasert and Mirena
Mechanism of Action
The precise mechanism of action of the IUD is still unknown.

1. New studies prove that the IUDs act mostly by preventing sperms from fertilizing ova. The primary mechanisms of action of copper-releasing IUD are by impeding sperm transport and inhibiting their capacity to
fertilize ova.
2. All unmedicated and copper devices produce an inflammatory or foreign body reaction, which in turn causes cellular and biochemical changes in the endometrium and in uterine and tubal fluids. Prostaglandin level
increase and the fibrinolytic mechanism needed for hemostasis are affected. Numerous polymorphs, giant cells, mononuclear cells, plasma cell, and macrophages appear in the endometrium as well as in the uterine
and tubal fluids. These cells engulf or consume sperms and ova by the process of phagocytosis and thus prevent fertilization. Besides, normal cyclical changes in the endometrium may be delayed or deranged by
the inflammatory reaction and liberation of prostaglandins, making it inhospitable for implantation of the blastocyst.
3. When inserted postcoitally, IUDs can prevent implantation of the fertilized ovum.
4. Copper causes more intense inflammatory reaction and interferes with enzymes in the uterus, the amount of DNA in endometrial cells, glycogen metabolism, and estrogen uptake by the uterine mucosa.
5. Sperm motility, capacitation, and survival are also affected by the biochemical changes in the cervical mucus produced by copper.
6. IUDs containing progesterone prevent sperm passing through the cervical mucus and maintain high progesterone level and, in consequence, relatively low estrogen levels locally. They, thereby, keep the
endometrium in a state in which implantation is hindered.
• In Cu T 200 the copper portion has an exposed surface area of 200 mm2.
• The Multiload Cu 250 has a recommended life span of 3 years, and the Multiload Cu 375 of 5 years.,😁
Copper T 380A (Ca T 380A), Ca T 380 Ag, and Cu T 380S (Slimline)
They are T-shaped, look almost alike, and are made of polyethylene impregnated with barium sulfate. They have 314
mm2 copper wire on the vertical stem and two 33 mm2 copper sleeves on each of the two transverse arms. The wire in the 380 Ag has a sliver core. The approved life span of the Cu T 380A is 10 years.
Progesterone IUD (Progestasert)
The vertical shaft is fitted with a capsule containing 38 mg of progesterone dispensed in silicone oil. It delivers progesterone to the uterus at the rate of 65 μg/day.
The US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA)-approved effective life is only 1 year.
The contraceptive effectiveness of the progestasert is similar to that of Cu IUDs; it reduces menstrual loss, but has
to be replaced every year, and possibly increases the risk of ectopic pregnancy (as it decreases tubal motility).
Mirena/LNG IUD/LNG 20/Levonova/LNG IUS
Mirena contains a total of 52 mg levonorgestrel (LNG). LNG is released into the uterine cavity at a rate of approximately 20 μg/day. The LNG IUD is about as effective as sterilization, but, unlike sterilization, it is easily reversible.
These devices act mainly by local progestogenic effects and act for up to 5 years. Pearl index after 5 years is 0.09/100
women-years (most effective reversible contraception available today). The ovarian functions are not disturbed
by LNG 20.

Advantages and Noncontraceptive Benefits
Health benefits of Mirena include:

1. Reduction of blood loss, which benefits patients with anemia and dysfunctional uterine bleeding
2. Reduction of pain and dysmenorrhea in endometriosis and adenomyosis
3. Beneficial effect on fibroids
4. The advantage that IUDs introduced 6 weeks after delivery do not influence lactation or affect infant growth and
development.
5. Can be used in prevention and treatment of endometrial hyperplasia.
6. Decreases the risk of endometrial cancer.
7. Decreases the risk of PID and hence protects against ectopic pregnancy.

Drawbacks

1. Irregular bleeding and oligomenorrhea, which happen quite commonly in the first 3–4 months
2. Amenorrhea, which affects up to 20–50% cases by 1 year. But this is not at all harmful as it is a progesteroneinduced amenorrhea.
3. Difficulty of introduction, needing local anesthesia in many cases
4. Slightly higher rates of minor side effects such as acne, dizziness, headaches, breast tenderness, nausea and
vomiting, and weight gain
Pearl Index of IUD
IUDs can be divided into three groups according to the pregnancy rate, indicating their contraceptive efficacy:

1. Group I (pregnancy rates greater than 2.0 per 100 women-year): Lippes loop, Cu 7 T 200
2. Group II (pregnancy rates less than 2.0 but more than 1 per 100 women-year): Nova T, ML Cu 250, and Cu T
220C
3. Group III (pregnancy rates less than 1 (mostly less than 0.5) per 100 women-year): Cu T 380A, Cu T 380S, ML Cu 375, and LNG 20

RECENT ADVANCES

PP IUCD (Post Placental IUCD) Insertion
IUCD can be inserted immediately after vaginal delivery or during LSCS before closure of the uterus.
WHO Category 4: absolute contraindications for use of IUD:
• Immediate postseptic abortion
• Pregnancy
• Vaginal bleeding suspicious/unexplained
• Puerperal sepsis
• Cervical cancer
• Endometrial cancer
• Uterine anomaly
• Pelvic tuberculosis
• Current pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)/Current STDs
• Malignant trophoblast disease
• Current STDs
• Uterine fibroids with distortion of uterine cavity
NOTE: Nulliparity, heart disease, fibroids with no cavity distortion and past history of PID are relative contraindications.
• Insertion of ML Cu 250 and ML Cu 375: This is done by the withdrawal method without plunger.
Complications of IUD
1. Increased bleeding is the greatest disadvantage of IUDs and, along with pain, accounts for their removal in
2–10 per 100 users in the first year.
2. Misplaced IUD: If the device is detected inside the peritoneal cavity, it should be removed as early as possible.
Copper devices produce irritative reactions, inflammations, and a lot of adhesions.
Copper devices in the peritoneal cavity usually need laparotomy for their removal, as they produce a good amount
of adhesions, although it is possible to remove them by laparoscopy Perforation occurs rarely, not more than 1.2 per
1000 insertions.
The device may migrate into the peritoneal cavity or become embedded in the uterine musculature. Most perforations occur at the time when insertion technique is followed.
The copper T devices are known to produce omental masses and adhesions, and progesterone devices can cause
intraperitoneal bleeding and should always be removed urgently.
3. Infections: Doxycycline 200 mg or, better still, azithromycin 500 mg, administered orally 1 h before insertion,
reduces chance of infection.
The presence of actinomyces has been found to increase with duration of use, especially after use of inerttailed devices.
The infection in IUD users can be prevented by (a) proper selection of patients, excluding those cases who have
active infection or are likely to have infection from the husband or other partners, (b) prophylactic antibiotic
course, and (c) proper disinfection and the practice of aseptic techniques.
4. Pregnancy: As soon as pregnancy is confirmed, the IUD should be removed, if it can be done easily, to
reduce the risk of pelvic infection and miscarriage—the most frequent complication of pregnancy with an
IUD in place.
If the IUD cannot be removed easily, it can be left in situ.
There is no risk at all of any congenital malformations if IUD is left in situ.
5. Ectopic pregnancy: Several studies, including a WHO multicenter study, have found that IUD users are 50% less
likely to have ectopic pregnancy than women using no contraception. The chance of ectopic pregnancy in IUD
users is rare and varies from 0.25 to 1.5 per 1000 women-year. However, when pregnancy occurs, the chance of ectopic
pregnancy is higher (about 30%) than in general population (about 0.5–0.8%) of all pregnancies.
Newer IUDS
Cu-Fix IUD (Flexi-Gard): This is frameless IUD consisting of six copper sleeves (300 mm2 of copper) strung on a
surgical polypropylene nylon thread, which is knotted at the upper end.
Cu Safe IUD: The device has a T-shaped radio-opaque plastic body. The ends of the flexible transverse arms are
inwardly bent, providing a nonirritating, fundus-seeking mechanism.

How to Write a Letter of Interest for a Job? Simple Steps

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How to Write a Letter of Interest for a Job? Simple Steps

Here in this article you can learn How to Write a Letter of Interest for a Job in Simple Steps.

 Simple steps to  write Effective Letter of Interest for jobs

A letter of interest (cover letter) is crucial when you start a job application process. In simple it is a letter usually used to introduce yourself and your qualifications (Eligibility & Skills) to someone who is in a hiring position of the company or organization. Your resume or CV should always accompany your job interest letter when you are sending it to a potential employer. You need to know few things like letter of interest format when you write it. As first impression is the best impression make sure you don’t drop your ball at the first step of the hiring process. We present you few best tips and suggestions as you start writing your job interest letter.

Compile your thoughts prior you start the letter

 You need to organize your thoughts and ideas. write them down as draft to summarize them logically and sequentially in your cover letter. Prepare lists of your skills related to the present position you are applying, work experience. Analyse your educational achievements, projects and other courses which you feel will add to the current opening.

Highlight the “Purpose” of your letter within the First Paragraph

You need to draw special attention of the hiring person to the position you really interested along with the department you want to work in the first para itself. You need to give the details of source from where you got to know about the opening like news paper or website.Express you interest towards the position or employment in that organization.

Need to market your Qualifications

In the Second Paragraph, you need to market your educational qualifications, experience, skills and even yourself. You can make your resume highlight with a powerful cover letter prepared by matching your skills perfectly with the position and the company profile. Address the desired criteria of the job requirement as your strengths.

Never miss to encourage the recruiter to contact you

Express your keen interest in a meeting or interview with the hirer to discuss in detail about your educational qualifications, skills and experience. Include your contact information in the third paragraph. Provide your telephone number, email address.

 

Format for the Letter of Interest (Cover Letter)

Your Local Street Address

City, State and Zip Code

Date

Mr./Ms. First and Last Name

Title

Name of Firm or Organization

Street Address

City, State and Zip Code

Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name:

First Paragraph:

Indicate the purpose for your letter and the position or field of work or the department in which you are really interested. If you are applying for a specific opening, indicate how you learned of the vacancy (i.e. website, CDC’s eRecruiting, referral).

Second Paragraph:

Market your qualifications for current position only. Give details of your academic background, skills and interests, experience, and activities which will contribute to the success of their organization

Third Paragraph:

Encourage the hirer to contact you and to schedule an interview.

Refer the hirer to your enclosed resume.

Express appreciation for the hirer for consideration.

Sincerely,

(Written signature)

Points to remember:

For writing a Strong Cover Letter you need to note few important things. We provide do’s and don’t’s while you write your cover letter

Do’s

  • Prior writing a cover letter learn about the organizations goals and mission.
  • Address the letter directly to exact hirer or appropriate person. You need to write in a professional, confident, and polite tone
  • Use good quality paper
  • Check spelling and grammar meticulously
  • You must and should confine your cover letter to one page.
  • Always use simple font and the same font style you chose for your resume writing
  • Convey the recruiter that you’d be a good and best match based on your skills and experience. 
  • Remember to close your letter always with an action statement. 

Don’t’s

  • Don’t repeat your resume.
  • Do not use phrases like “to whom it may concern.” .
  • Never use a weak ending like “I look forward to your reply”
  • Don’t use the pronoun “I” with every sentence

Arrhythmia Pharmacology Exam Guide MBBS B. Pharmacy M. PhaRMACY PDF

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Arrhythmia Pharmacology Exam Guide MBBS B. Pharmacy M. PhaRMACY PDF

In this article we will go for Arrhythmia topic as Pharmacology Exam Guide for all the students of M.B.B.S B. Pharmacy M. PhaRMACY PDF. Here you will find Definition of Arrhythmia Treatment and the drugs used for this condition. This is solely for educational purpose.

Definition of Arrhythmia

Arrhythmia is defined as loss of cardiac rhythm, especially irregularity of heartbeat. This chapter covers the group of conditions caused by an abnormality in the rate, regularity, or sequence of cardiac activation.

SUPRAVENTRICULAR ARRHYTHMIAS

Atrial fibrillation (AF) or atrial flutter, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia premature atrial complexes, wandering atrial pace- maker, sinus arrhythmia, sinus tachycardia.

Common supraventricular tachycardias requiring drug treatment are atrial.
fibrillation (AF) or atrial flutter, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia.

VENTRICULAR ARRHYTHMIAS

Premature Ventricular Complexes

Ventricular Tachycardia

Bradyarrhythmias

Symptoms & Clinical Manefestations of Arrhythimias

Supraventricular tachycardias

Supraventricular tachycardias may cause a variety of clinical manifestations ranging from no symptoms to minor palpitations and/or irregular pulse to severe and even life-threatening symptoms. Patients may experi-
ence dizziness or acute syncopal episodes; symptoms of HF; anginal chest pain; or, more often, a choking or pressure sensation during the tachycardia episode.

Atrial flutter

• AF or atrial flutter may be manifested by the entire range of symptoms associated with other supraventricular tachycardias, but syncope is not a common presenting symptom. An additional complication of AF is arterial embolization resulting from atrial stasis and poorly adherent mural thrombi, which accounts for the most devastating complication: embolic stroke. Patients with AF and concurrent mitral stenosis or severe systolic HF are at particularly high risk for cerebral embolism.

Premature Ventricular Complexes

• PVCs often cause no symptoms or only mild palpitations. The presentation of VT may vary from totally asymptomatic to pulseless hemodynamic collapse. Consequences of proarrhythmia range from no symptoms to worsening of symptoms to sudden death. VF results in hemodynamic collapse, syncope, and cardiac arrest.

Bradyarrhythmias Symptoms

• Patients with bradyarrhythmias experience symptoms associated with hypotension such as dizziness, syncope, fatigue, and confusion. If LV dysfunction exists, symptoms of congestive HF may be exacerbated.

ANTI ARRHYTHMIC DRUGS:

CLASSIFICATION OF ANTI ARRHYTHMIC DRUGS:

Group I: Drug which blocks voltage sensitive sodium channels and thus reduces excitability of non-odal region of heart.
a. Class Ia
Class Ia antiarrythmics, in addition to their effect on the voltage-gated sodium channels, slow repolarization by inhibiting potassium efflux. They are quinidine,
hydroquinidine, disopyramide.
b. Class Ib
The drugs of the Ib class, in addition to their effect on the sodium voltage-gated channels, accelerate cellular repolarization by increasing potassium efflux, and decrease the duration of the action potential and the refractory period.

Arrhythmia Pharmacology Exam Guide MBBS B. Pharmacy M. PhaRMACY PDF
They are lidocaine, phenytoin and mexiletine.
c. Class Ic
Class Ic antiarrythmics inhibit the voltage-dependant sodium channels and prolong the depolarisation phase, have little effect on the repolarization phase. They are flecainide, propafenone and aprindine.
Group II: Drug acting inhibiting of sympathetic nerve (β-Blocker).
Eg: Propranolol, Practolol, Sotolol, Bretlylium, Esmolol etc.
Group III: Potassium Channel Blockers. Drug that prolong action potential and repolarization.
Eg.: Sotololo, Dofetilide
Class IV: Calcium channel blockers. Eg.: verapamil, Nifedipine, Diltiazem etc

Pharmaceutical Bio Hazards Bio-safety Risk Assessment Laboratory Risk Management

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Pharmaceutical Bio Hazards Bio-safety Risk Assessment Laboratory Risk Management

Article wants to discuss Pharmaceutical Bio Hazards Bio-safety Risk Assessment Laboratory Risk Management. In recent years the pharmaceutical industry has come to occupy a unique position in regard to problems of industrial hygiene and toxicology; practically no other single commercial enterprise presents such a wide variety of potentially toxic exposures or such a rapidly-changing advent of new chemical substances.  The hazards of extracting active principles from crude drugs are unequally divided between the three classes of materials involved; the herbs themselves, the solvents, and the finished active material. Of the three, the crude materials offer the least striking dangers to health.

Biohazard Definition 

Biohazard[ bahy-oh-haz-erd ] is generally defined as a pathogen, especially one used in or produced by biological research. the health risk posed by the possible release of such a pathogen into the environment.

Pharmaceutical Industrial Hazards

Most hazards encountered fall into three main categories: chemical, biological, or physical. Cleaning agents and disinfectants, drugs, anesthetic gases, solvents, paints, and compressed gases are examples of chemical hazards. Potential exposures to chemical hazards can occur both during use and with poor storage.

Biological hazards include potential exposures to allergens, infectious zoonotics (animal diseases transmissible to humans), and experimental agents such as viral vectors. Allergens, ubiquitous in animal research facilities, are one of the most important health hazards, yet they are frequently overlooked.

Biosafety is also becoming a global concern and requires multilevel resources and international collaboration to monitor, prevent and correct accidents from unintended and malicious release and also to prevent that bioterrorists get their hands-on biologics sample to create biologic weapons of mass destruction. .
Biosafety is the prevention of large-scale loss of biological integrity, focusing both on ecology and human health. These prevention mechanisms include conduction of regular reviews of the biosafety in laboratory settings, as well as strict guidelines to follow. Biosafety is used to protect from harmful incidents. Many laboratories handling biohazards employ an ongoing risk management assessment and enforcement process for biosafety. Failures to follow such protocols can lead to increased risk of exposure to biohazards or pathogens. Human error and poor technique contribute to unnecessary exposure and compromise the best safeguards set into place for protection.

Risk Assessment ??? Who will do this???? 

—-Safety/Pharmacovigilance team
— Identification of adverse events and evaluation of safety signals
— Safety reports for Health Authorities and Top Management
— Pharmacologists/Toxicologists
— Investigators/Physicians treating patients
— Drug Safety Monitoring Board (DSMB)
— Global interdisciplinary project teams

Risk assessment

Classification of biohazardous materials is subjective and the risk assessment is determined by the individuals most familiar with the specific characteristics of the organism. There are several factors taken into account when assessing an organism and the classification process.

Risk Group 1: (no or low individual and community risk) A microorganism that is unlikely to cause human or animal disease.
Risk Group 2 : (moderate individual risk, low community risk) A pathogen that can cause human or animal disease but is unlikely to be a serious hazard to laboratory workers, the community, livestock or the environment. Laboratory exposures may cause serious infection, but effective treatment and preventive measures are available and the risk of spread of infection is limited.
Risk Group 3 : (high individual risk, low community risk) A pathogen that usually causes serious human or animal disease but does not ordinarily spread from one infected individual to another. Effective treatment and preventive measures are available.
Risk Group 4 : (high individual and community risk) A pathogen that usually causes serious human or animal disease and that can be readily transmitted from one individual to another, directly or indirectly. Effective treatment and preventive measures are not usually available.

It should be apparent from the foregoing that any pharmaceutical industry, large or small, is particularly in need of expert counsel in matters affecting the health of workmen. A thorough knowledge of the literature of known poisons is essential for the industrial specialist in this field, but he must also have an alert readiness to detect and investigate possible new poisons.

PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING Question Paper for 1st year B Pharmacy First Sem Second Semister Exam

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PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING Question Paper for 1st year B Pharmacy First Sem Second Semister Exam

Pharmawiki website provides previous year question paper for B Pharmacy M pharmacy students with different subjects of 1st-2nd semester/year and all the four years of your bachelor degree. Doing preparation from the previous year question paper helps you to get good marks in exams. From our 1st-2nd semester/year question paper bank, students can download previous year question papers and study them to get good marks and score a good grade in their examinations. The solutions to these previous year question paper are very easy to understand. Here is PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING Question Paper for 1st year B Pharmacy First Sem Second Semister Exam.

Strategy with Previous Year Question Paper:

Through pharmaceutical Engineering previous year question paper pdf, you can analyze the change of pattern from year to year. So you can be familiar with a variety of questions for a single chapter. This way of practice will make you stronger in each chapter. So that you can solve the questions even if is twisted to various lessons.

By the continuous practice of many question papers, you can get the idea about how to select the questions in a wise manner. For example, if you select a difficult puzzle at the beginning without much practice, you will end up incomplete. Also, the entire time you spent for the puzzle is waste. So these kinds of mistakes can be avoided by effective time management. The art of time management will be attained after practicing more previous year question papers.

PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING Question Paper for 1st year B Pharmacy First Sem Second Semister Exam

This way of practice will gradually increase your speed and accuracy even for the tougher papers. So that your chances of victory will be even more.

With the help of question papers, you can analyze your mistakes easily. The paper will also be in a clear and step-by-step manner. So that you can understand the difficult lessons easily.

previous past papers b pharmacy m pharmacy
previous past papers b pharmacy m pharmacy

Keep visiting this page for more updated question papers and you can find other subjects notes and previous papers from other pages of this pharmawiki website. Do not worry about your examinations write to us in the comment section below. we will be very happy to listen from you and we assure our best to help you.

Job Prospects & Opportunities of Pharmacist in Canada

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Job Prospects & Opportunities of Pharmacy in Canada

Let us see today Job Prospects & Opportunities of Pharmacy in Canada for all the candidates who wants to immigrate Canada for job purpose or study purpose. Canada is the world’s second-largest country by total area in the northern part of North America covering 9.98 million square kilometres. Because the northern part of the country is mostly an uninhabited region, Canada has got the lowest population density among the world. Hence, ample job prospects are found in Canada especially in the Pharmaceutical field due to shortages of skilled pharmacists. In areas such as British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario and Prince Edward Island pharmacy students can get their job requirements fulfilled. Pharmacy is a regulated profession here in Canada and you are ought to get licence before you start your work.

Pharmacy Informatics is a booming career wherein the pharmacists are linked with the optimization and overall management of the health system. Careers in the educational sectors are worthy enough that provide quality education and training in pharmaceutical science to prospective students. While discussing the job role of a pharmacist we see that they have various categories to fill in suiting the environment in which they work. They can take up their role as following

Community Pharmacists- They can work with the government or private hospitals and clinics or can also set up their own drugstore. They give instructional information on the drug type, its required dosage, and storage.

Hospital Pharmacists- They solely work in the hospitals fulfilling the role in determining the correct amount of medicines delivered to the patients in both cases of intravenous and oral administrations. If necessary, they are also in charge of compounding drugs.

Industrial Pharmacists- Mostly they indulge in research work while conducting trials which is why they are responsible for drug safety and its appropriate promotion.

Consultant Pharmacists- This requires them to play the role of a consultant who will provide the necessary drug information to the patients and clients.

Veterinary Pharmacists- They particularly take care of animal diseases and illnesses. For pets, strays and wildlife they are in high demand as none can understand animal physiology except them.

 REQUIREMENTS:

  • A bachelor’s degree in Pharmacy or related field that contains a sufficient number of pharmacy subjects. Excellent knowledge of clinical sciences and pharmaceutical chemistry.
  • A good grasp on communication along with interpersonal and problem-solving skills.
  • Pharmacist License required for authorizing their practice.
  • Good experience and training.

Job Prospects & Opportunities of Pharmacy in Canada

For job immigrants, one can apply for a work visa in Canada from a Canadian employer on receiving a job offer or an employment contract. They can work in the Canadian Pharmaceutical industry based on Indian Pharmaceutical industries’ experience in the field of production, R&D, F&D, Sales etc. only after having Canadian citizenship. Alternatively, if a student goes for higher education in Pharmacy, it would be quite easier to get absorbed in Canada. After getting a Student visa, one can get a work permit for some years and thereafter apply for a work contract followed by green card and citizenship. This whole process takes up to 7-10 years. Only if someone wants to practice there as a pharmacist they must qualify PEBC exam to become a registered Canadian Pharmacist.

Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Vaccine Delivery and Adjuvant:

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Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Vaccine Delivery and Adjuvant:

Biodegradable nanoparticles:

Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Vaccine Delivery and Adjuvant:

Nanotechnology has been applied to improve drug delivery and to develop

Nano-scaled drug delivery devices. Nanoparticles have been developed as an important strategy to deliver low molecular-weight drugs, as well as biomacromolecules such as proteins or DNA. In particular, polymeric nanoparticles with entrapped antigens represent an exciting approach to control the release of vaccine antigens and to optimize the desired immune response via selective targeting of the antigen to antigen-presenting cells.

For the past two decades, the synthesis and clinical applications of Core-corona type polymeric nanoparticles have been studied and they composed of hydrophobic polystyrene and Hydrophilic macromonomers (Fig. 1). These nanoparticles have applications in various Technological and biomedical fields, because their chemical structures and size can be easily controlled.

HIV-1-capturing core-corona type polystyrene nanoparticles exhibited great potential as vaccine delivery systems for the induction of HIV-1 specific immune responses2). Moreover, based on these research, we attempted to develop a new biodegradable nanoparticles composed of hydrophobic poly (γ-glutamic acid) derivatives (γ-hPGA) for protein-based vaccine delivery.

Protein-encapsulated γ-hPGA nanoparticles could enhance the protein delivery to dendritic cells (DCs). These γ-hPGA nanoparticles also had adjuvant activity for DC maturation4). Thus, γ-hPGA nanoparticles have significant potential as an antigen carrier and adjuvant for DCs. Moreover, vaccination with antigen-encapsulated γ-hPGA nanoparticles dramatically enhanced cellular immunity5). This system provides a novel delivery tool and an efficient antigen delivery and adjuvant systems in the development of protein-based vaccines (Fig. 2).

NANO-BEADS:

  • Recently, the use of solid inert beads of nanometric size (0.04–0.05 µm) was reported as a very promising strategy to achieve efficient antigen delivery to APC, generating potent and combined humoral and CD8+ T cell immunity.

POLY (LACTIDE-CO-GLYCOLIDE) MICROPARTICLES:

  • Surface charged poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) microparticles with surface adsorbed antigen(s) can also be used to deliver antigen into APC.

  • These are biocompatible and biodegradable microspheres of nanometer-micrometer size able to incorporate different antigens.

  • One of their advantages is the capacity to manipulate the degradation kinetics by varying the relative concentration of their components, thereby controlling the time of antigen release

  • PLG microparticles are effective for the induction of cell-mediated immunity.

  • Alternative approach involving charged polylactide co-glycolide (PLG) microparticles with surface adsorbed antigen(s) can also be used to deliver antigen into APC.

  • The surface adsorbed microparticle formulation offers an alternative and novel way of delivering antigens in a vaccine formulation.

  • The preparation of cationic and anionic PLG microparticles which have been used to adsorb a variety of agents, including plasmid DNA, recombinant proteins and immunostimulatory oligonucleotides resulted in the induction of significantly enhanced immune responses in comparison to alum.

Nucleic acid based adjuvants:

  • Bacterial DNA shows direct immunostimulatory effects on immune cells in vitro. Thisimmunostimulatory effect is due to the presence of unmethylated CpG dinucleotides.

  • CpG motifs are recognized by the Toll-like receptor (TLR) in mammalian cells, inducing the secretion of type-1 interferons and   IL-12 by cells of the innate immune system, promoting a Th1 cellular response and preventing allergic responses. Therefore, CpG-containing DNA-based molecules would be useful for therapeutic applications and also for adjuvanting other types of vaccines.

VIRUS-LIKE PARTICLES:

  • Virus-like particles are inert, empty capsids of viruses, which contain no DNA/RNA from the virus itself. However they retain the structure of a virus and they can be engineered to have antigens attached.

  • Particles with similar size and shape to viruses and obtained by genetic engineering containing antigens from viral or non-viral sources are also regarded as VLPs. VLPs-displayed antigens are efficiently taken up by dendritic cells (DC) and induce potent immune responses after parenteral, mucosal and transcutaneous immunizations.

Mucosal adjuvants:

The most potent mucosal adjuvants have been shown to be the toxins derived from Vibrio cholerae or Escherichia coli, which should not be surprising since these organisms invade the body through the GI tract. Obviously too toxic for human use  because they are the source of cholera or diarrhoea, heat labile enterotoxins have been tested in mice and shown to be potent adjuvants for orally or nasally administered influenza vaccine. The potency of heat-labile enterotoxin mutants may also be enhanced by formulation into bioadhesive particulate delivery systems, and this is an area under current exploration.

The main function of mucosal adjuvants is breaking tolerance and inducing an immune response.

  • soluble small immunopotentiating mucosal adjuvants – CpG;Imiquimod and Resiquimod

  • soluble protein immunopotentiating mucosal adjuvants – mutants ofheat-labile enterotoxin from E.coli

  • Miscellaneous – bioadhesives e.g. chitosans, carbopol

CHITOSANS

Chitin is almost as common in nature as cellulose and is a main structural element of Crustacea, molluscs, and insects. Because it has limited solubility in industrial solvents, it has limited use; but when deacetylated under alkaline conditions it is converted to chitosan. Chitosan has terminal free amino groups distributed along its molecular chain giving it a higher chemical and biochemical reactivity and thereby allowing it to be applied in a number of areas, including cosmetics and drug delivery. While inexpensive and readily available commercially, this material is also claimed to be nontoxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible. One other advantage, less widely recognized, is that it is a mucoadhesive and it also appears to act as an immunoadjuvant which, in the context of vaccine delivery, might provide a considerable advantage. In addition, the adjuvanticity of chitosan can be enhanced by the addition of secondary adjuvants so; overall, this material is seen to be very promising.

Commercially chitosans can have molecular weights varying from 4 to 2000 kDa and vary in the degree of deacetylation from 66% to 95%. Because of the free amino groups chitosan behaves as a weak base, with a pKa of 6.2–7.0 and is insoluble in water or organic solvents. It is a polyamine and therefore dissolves in hydrochloric acid and various organic acids including acetic, oxalic, and lactic acids, thereby forming salts.

Chitosan salts are soluble in water, the solubility depending on the type of acid involved. For example, sebasic, phosphoric, and sulfuric salts are all less soluble and this provides a means of making dispersed insoluble particles of chitosan. In one method the chitosan powder is dissolved in a dilute acetic acid solution and poured into a solution of sodium sulfate, forming a fine dispersion of chitosan microparticles that can be collected and dried.

The stability of unmodified chitosan particles in an aqueous environment may be questionable and some authors have made covalent cross-linked chitosan microparticles by taking advantage of the formation of Schiff bases with the free amino groups using a reactive aldehyde such as glutaraldehyde. These cross-linked particles may be less soluble in water and they are more stable physically but need to be loaded with any drug only after the remaining glutaraldehyde is thoroughly washed out and neutralized with sodium metabisulfite.

Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Vaccine Delivery and Adjuvant:

Cytokines:

  • Cytokines are small proteins that are released in response to immunological stimuli and function in regulating immune activity and homeostasis.

            E.g.  GM-CSF,  IL-12,  IL-2,  IL-4,  IL-15,  1L-7,  interferons,  TNF-α.

  • Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) enhances the immune response by activating and recruiting APC.

  • However, the practical application of GM-CSF as an adjuvant has been limited by the requirement for multiple doses, toxicity and the immunogenicity of heterologous cytokines.

  • On the other hand, the direct application of IL-12 and other cytokines as soluble proteins has proven effective as mucosal adjuvants.

Cough syrup for Dry, Wet cough in Kids & Adults

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Cough syrup for Dry, Wet cough in Kids & Adults

Cough syrup for Dry, Wet cough in Kids & Adults are provided in this article for the knowledge of the users who intend to take them. Irrespective of age, people have their tendencies of catching cough and cold due to some reason or the other. Since cough may be associated with a broad array of situations, it is helpful to consider possible causes under various categories. The most common cause of cough esp. in children is infection with the common cold (upper respiratory tract infection). Other causes of cough include nasal allergies, wheezing, GERD, and foreign objects (which may include choking). The duration of cough becomes a big clue as to its cause. In adults and children, a cough is described as acute (short term) if they have been coughing for up to 2 weeks. Forchildren, coughing that lasts 2 to 4 weeks is called a prolonged acute cough. A cough that lasts more than 4 weeks is considered to be a chronic cough for kids. In adults, a cough lasting for more than 8 weeks is described as a chronic (ongoing) persistent cough.

Here are categories of drugs which are not recommended for children under the age of 4 (or 2, depending upon which guidelines you use), and include:

• Cough expectorants (guaifenesin)
• Cough suppressants (dextromethorphan, DM)
• Decongestants (pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine)
• Certain antihistamines like brompheniramine, chlorpheniramine maleate, and diphenhydramine (Benadryl)

Dry cough

A cough where no phlegm or mucus is produced is known as dry or non-productive cough. A dry cough is more irritating because it comes with a tickly throat. Dry coughs usually happen along
with viral illnesses such as colds and flu, but they can also be caused by allergies or throat irritants.

Remedies for a dry cough

You may need antibiotics, antacids, asthma medications, or further testing for both kids andadults. Cough suppressants work for cough by suppressing the urge to cough that constitutes any of the active ingredients pholcodine, dextromethorphan, codeine, dihydrocodeine, or pentoxyverine. They are available in the form of lozenges (which may also contain an antibacterial to help soothe a sore throat), or liquid or linctus (cough mixture or syrup).

Wet cough

A wet cough is a cough that typically brings up mucus which is also called a productive cough. Wet coughs are commonly caused by a cold or flu. They can come on slowly or quickly and may
be accompanied by other symptoms, such as the runny nose, postnasal drip, fatigue. Coughs that stay less than three weeks in babies, toddlers, and children are almost always caused by a cold or
flu.

Cough syrup for Dry, Wet cough in Kids & Adults

    Cough syrup for Dry, Wet cough in Kids & Adults

Remedies for a wet cough

Saline drops in nasal passages are given to clean the nose with a bulb syringe. It is seen that 1.5 teaspoons of honey given a half-hour before bedtime reduces cough and encourages better sleep in children age 1 and older. Use a humidifier at night to moisten the air and follow the instructions while using OTC cough and cold medications. Adults’ treatment of acute wet coughs is done with OTC cough and cold symptom-relieving medications or honey. If cough persists for longer than three weeks, antibiotic therapy or other treatments may be required.

Interview Questions for Lupin Pharmaceuticals 1st Freshers & Experience

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Interview Questions Answers for Lupin Pharmaceuticals 1st Freshers Experience

Interview Questions for Lupin Pharmaceuticals, Inc. are here in this article for all the aspirants of finding a great career in this good company.

Lupin Pharmaceuticals, Inc. is the U.S. wholly-owned subsidiary of Lupin Limited and has taken a place in the top five pharmaceutical companies in India. The company holds the rank of the eighth-largest generic pharmaceutical company by revenue and 12th-largest by market capitalization globally. The company operates in various countries including South Africa,Australia, Philipines, Germany, Netherland, Mexico & Brazil. The companys key focus areas include paediatrics, cardiovascular, anti-infectives, diabetology, asthma, anti-tuberculosis, Central Nervous System (CNS), Gastro-Intestinal (GI), and Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs). There is a wide range of products manufactured in this organization such as Branded & Generic Formulations, Biotechnology Products, Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients(APIs) and Specialty.

In India, Lupin Pharmaceuticals, Inc. is based in Mumbai, Maharashtra and is dedicated to delivering high-quality, branded and generic medications trusted by healthcare professionals and patients across geographies. Hence, various positions of different profile openings lie for suitable candidates (both freshers and experienced). There are about 50,000 employees working throughout the company. In any recruitment cycle, there are several rounds of the interview including the written test and face to face process. Also, the company policy exists for references and walking interview and campus recruitment’s.

Here are some handpicked interview questions for the Pharmacy candidates who are aiming to apply in Lupin Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

  • Can you explain what an excipient is and one of its possible uses?
  • What is a parenteral medication?
  • Do you know what a viscosity imparting agent is?
  • What can you tell me about buffering agents?
  • What is the difference between a vial and an ampule?
  • What is a humectant, and can you provide an example?
  • Why do HEPA filters have a 0.3-micron pore size?
  • What is the difference in syrup and a suspension?
  • At Lupin Ltd we like to encourage employees to have a healthy balance between work and their personal lives. What are some things you like to do to help you unwind and create balance in your life?
  • Interview Questions Answers for Lupin Pharmaceuticals 1st Freshers Experience
  1. Lupin Ltd likes to reward employees for their hard work and experience. What would beyour feeling towards someone having the same job title as you making a higher salary because of years of experience.

Safe Cold Flu Medications during Pregnancy & Breast Feeding

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Safe Cold Flu Medications during Pregnancy & Breast Feeding

Safe Cold Flu Medications during Pregnancy & Breast Feeding

Breastfeeding mothers wonder whether some quick relief from over-the-counter medications could negatively impact their breastfeeding baby. When it comes to your baby no loss can be afforded if it poses even a negligible risk and therefore while taking medications for common cold flu, pregnant women are to follow special instructions. Research shows that some cold and flu medications are better than others when it comes to breastfeeding.
Here are some cold flu medications that are safe while breastfeeding.
The common active ingredients in cold and flu syrups are Dextromethorphan, acetaminophen, and doxylamine succinate along with their generic ingredients.

Dextromethorphan is a cough suppressant commonly used for treating colds in children and adults. It is generally considered safe while breastfeeding.
Acetaminophen, a drug used to treat pain and reduce fever in adults and children, works for pregnant women as well.
A common active ingredient in the nighttime formulations is doxylamine succinate, an antihistamine that causes sedation in its users and can be used for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. This drug is considered safe while breastfeeding yet extensive study is going on.

Another fever reducer and pain medication naming Ibuprofen often used during a cold, also safe for infants of breastfeeding mothers. Even high maternal consumption of ibuprofen leads to very little excretion in breast milk.
Phenylephrine is most commonly used as a nasal decongestant in adults and children. It is generally considered safe while breastfeeding unless there has been high maternal consumption of the drug, and can cause tachycardia and hypertension in sensitive individuals as phenylephrine has poor oral bioavailability.
Pseudoephedrine, a nasal decongestant commonly used to treat colds, has shown to be secreted in breast milk in extremely low levels and is considered safe while breastfeeding.
During the cold and flu season, nasal sprays are additionally used. These include fluticasone and oxymetazoline (Afrin). Fluticasone is a steroid that is of intranasal use for congested noses and additionally for asthma. When using the medication as indicated, maternal plasma levels are undetectable. Thus, it is unlikely that a significant amount of this drug would pass into breastmilk to affect a breastfeeding infant. Oxymetazoline is another intranasal decongestant used quite frequently for runny noses. Due to the local effect of this drug, it is unlikely that significant levels of this drug would be transferred to a breastfeeding infant and is preferred over oral decongestants during breastfeeding. Oxymetazoline use should be limited to 3 days to avoid rebound congestion.
Vitamin C intake is effective for cold-fighting. Although its efficacy is still in research, it is likely not harmful to supplement while breastfeeding. Even high levels of maternal consumption resulted in only slightly increased levels in breastmilk.

Safe Cold Flu Medications during Pregnancy & Breast Feeding
Safe Cold Flu Medications during Pregnancy & Breast Feeding

Here is a table to classify the safety level of the medications as per data collected:-

Medication Breastfeeding Class Description
Acetaminophen L1 Extensive data. Compatible.
Dextromethorphan L1 Extensive data. Compatible.
Ibuprofen L1 Extensive data. Compatible.
Vitamin C L1 Limited data. Probably compatible.
Diphenhydramine L2 Limited data. Probably compatible.
Zinc Oxide L2 Limited data. Probably compatible.*
Zinc Salts L2 Limited data. Probably compatible.*
Doxylamine                                   L3 No data. Probably compatible.
Fluticasone L3 No data. Probably compatible.
Guaifenesin L3 No data. Probably compatible.
Ozymetazoline L3 No Data. Probably compatible.
Phenylephrine L3 No data. Probably compatible.
Pseudoephedrine L3 Limited data. Probably compatible
*Avoid early postnatal use when milk levels of zinc are high.