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Computers Questions & Answers M pharm B Pharm – 1 st 2nd Year D B M Pharmacy

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Computers Questions & Answers M pharm B Pharm - 1 st 2nd Year D B M Pharmacy

1. Briefly describe the categories of computer networks?

Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, organizational scope, etc.

A communications protocol defines the formats and rules for exchanging information via a network. Well-known communications protocols are Ethernet, which is a family of protocols used in LANs, the Internet Protocol Suite, which is used not only in the eponymous Internet, but today nearly ubiquitously in any computer network

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are:

LAN – Local Area Network
WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network
WAN – Wide Area Network
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
SAN – Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network
CAN – Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network
PAN – Personal Area Network
DAN – Desk Area Network
LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution.

LAN – Local Area Network
A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring

WAN – Wide Area Network
As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

LAN, WAN and Home Networking

Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the Internet WAN via an Internet Service Provider (ISP) using a broadband modem. The ISP provides a WAN IP address to the modem, and all of the computers on the home network use LAN (so-called private) IP addresses. All computers on the home LAN can communicate directly with each other but must go through a central gateway, typically a broadband router, to reach the ISP.

Other Types of Area Networks

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types mentioned, you may also commonly see references to these others:
Wireless Local Area Network – a LAN based on WiFi wireless network technology
Metropolitan Area Network – a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity such as a government body or large corporation.
Campus Area Network – a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business campus.
Storage Area Network – connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.
System Area Network – links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features.

VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-point.

Network topology

A network topology is the layout of the interconnections of the nodes of a computer network. Common layouts are:
A bus network: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original Ethernet, called 10BASE5 and 10BASE2.
A star network: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in in a Wireless LAN, where each wireless client connects to the central Wireless access point.
A ring network: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) made use of such a topology.
A mesh network: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbors in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other.
A fully connected network: each node is connected to every other node in the network.

Note that the physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring (actually two counter-rotating rings), but the physical topology is a star, because all neighboring connections are routed via a central physical location.

2. Describe the basics of conducting a search?

Basic Search Techniques

This tutorial is a how-to guide for creating AND, OR, NOT, phrase, and field searches on Web search engines.

We’ll be using Google as an example. Keep in mind that the illustrated searches will work on most general search engines on the Web.

Tip! Before you read this tutorial, be sure that you understand the basics of Boolean logic. Check out Boolean Searching on the Internet. If you take the time to understand the basics of Boolean logic, you will have a better chance of search success.
Before you search, make a plan!

Putting together a search is a three-step process.

1. Identify your concepts

When planning your search, break down your topic into its separate concepts. Let’s say you’re interested in the effects of global warming on crops. In this case, you have two concepts: GLOBAL WARMING and CROPS.

2. Make a list of search terms for each concept

Once you have identified your concepts, list the terms which describe each concept. Some concepts may have only one term, while others may have many.

global warming
greenhouse effect
greenhouse gases
climate change

crops
crop yields
crop production
food supply

These lists are a suggestion. Depending on the focus of your search, there may be other terms more suited to what you’re looking for.

3. Specify the logical relationships among your search terms

Once you know the words you want to search, you need to establish the logical relationships among them using Boolean logic: AND, OR, NOT.

To keep things simple, you don’t need to use all the words you’ve compiled in a single search. The words are there to help you experiment with different searches until you find the results you want.

Phrase Search

Some words naturally appear in the context of a phrase, for example, freedom of the press. To search on phrases in most search engines, simply enclose the phrase within quotes: “freedom of the press”.

Phrases are especially important when there are stop words in your search. These are “little” words such as a, and, the, in, it, etc. Most search engines tend to ignore these words. If you want to be sure they are included in your search results, enclose them with the rest of your search within quotation marks. You can also put a plus sign (+) in front of them. Yahoo! suggests a combination of quotation marks and the plus sign, e.g., “+in thing”.
Field Search

Field searching is an optional way to focus your search results. With general search engines, you’re searching the full text of many millions of pages, and field searching can help you retrieve results that may be more manageable. For example, you can search for words that appear within a particular Web site, within the URL (Web address), in the page title, and so on. The exact technique for doing this can differ among search engines, so be sure to check out the Help pages before proceeding. Let’s consider a couple of examples on Google.
Title field

Computers Questions & Answers M pharm B Pharm - 1 st 2nd Year D B M Pharmacy

A title search can bring you more relevant results than merely searching for words that appear anywhere on the Web page. It’s more likely that a document that contains your search words in the title will be more relevant that a document that does not. For this reason, many search engines use title words as an important way of ranking search results in order of their relevancy.

Let’s look for Web pages that contain our search terms in the page title. Again, we’ll use Google to try this out, revisiting its advanced search page. Here, you need to open up the page to display all its options by clicking on the plus sign (+) near the bottom of the page next to the options for Date, usage rights, numeric range, and more.

Where your keywords show up gives you the option to select in the title of the page. Let’s search for hurricane caribbean deaths.

Notice that Google translated this search into allintitle: hurricane caribbean deaths. If you memorize this search syntax, you can conduct this search from Google’s main search page.

Site field

Searching on the site field is another useful way of finding relevant results. In this case, you search on the top-level and second-level domain names together, and then use AND logic to add topical words to your search.

You can read about domain structures in the tutorial A Basic Guide to the World Wide Web. Briefly, to take an example shown below: “nasa” is a second-level domain, and “gov” is a top-level domain.

Examples of sites:

nasa.gov
mit.edu
microsoft.com

Let’s look at an example of a site search. Let’s say you are searching for information about spacewalks conducted by NASA. Try this: spacewalks site:nasa.gov. This search will limit your results to pages on the NASA Web site.

Try this search yourself! You should get results that are similar to the ones shown in the screenshot below.

Notice that all the results come from the site nasa.gov. You can also go to the advanced search page on Google to conduct this search.

Natural language search

A few search engines encourage you to type your search as a “normal” question or sentence, rather than concern yourself with Boolean logic. This is sometimes known as a natural language search. On these engines, a variety of sophisticated techniques are working behind the scenes to analyze your search and return relevant results. Hakia is a good example of this type of engine. Give it a try and see what you think.

3.Define HTML? What does a basic HTML document contain?

HTML, which stands for HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant markup language for web pages. HTML is the basic building-blocks of webpages.
HTML is written in the form of HTML elements consisting of tags, enclosed in angle brackets (like <html>), within the web page content. HTML tags normally come in pairs like <h1> and </h1>. The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags). In between these tags web designers can add text, tables, images, etc.
The purpose of a web browser is to read HTML documents and compose them into visual or audible web pages. The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses the tags to interpret the content of the page.
HTML elements form the building blocks of all websites. HTML allows images and objects to be embedded and can be used to create interactive forms.

Creating Your HTML Document

An HTML document contains two distinct parts, the head and the body. The head contains information about the document that is not displayed on the screen. The body then contains everything else that is displayed as part of the web page.

The basic structure then of any HTML page is:
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC “-//W3C//DTD HTML 3.2//EN”>
<html>
<head>
<!– header info used to contain extra information about
this document, not displayed on the page –>
</head>

<body>

<!– all the HTML for display –>
: :
: :
: :
</body>
</html>

4. Why do people go in for web site? Build a web site of your choice following the elements of a good web site?

If you are looking to promote your business to a lot of people nationally and internationally than website advertising is one of the best ways to do it. Every business in the world needs some kind of marketing strategy that can help the business owner to display his products and services to more and more people so that they are aware of it and that they feel that they need that product or service. In the earlier times, the world of advertisement was very much limited to radio and television that would cost a lot of money to the business owners because they had to get in touch with ad makers who would than come up with innovative ideas to make an ad.
However, things have changed considerably after the advent of Internet. The trend of Internet advertising has caught the attention of millions of business people all over the world because with the help of this technology you can reach billions of people and promote your business, product or services in affordable prices You can take a look at the rate at which websites are being developed which clearly indicates that people today are more interested in marketing their products through the medium of Internet rather than using old traditional methods of marketing.

5. What does a web server do? How does it work? How do you choose a web server platform?

web server can mean two things – a computer on which a web site is hosted and a program that runs on such a computer. So the term web server refers to both hardware and software. We’ll look at each of these individually.
The web server computer – the hardware

A web site is a collection of web pages which are digital files, typically written using HyperText Markup Language (HTML). For a web site to be available to everyone in the world at all times, it need to be stored or “hosted” on a computer that is connected to the internet 27/7/365. Such a computer is known as a Web Server (note the first letter is in uppercase).

You can potentially host a web site on your home computer but this involves a lot of work and constant monitoring. It is easier to “buy” web hosting from a company because there are thousands that offer this service.

There are several requirements for a Server computer – it needs to be fast, have a large storage capacity hard disk and lots of RAM. But the most important is having a permanent internet address also known as an I.P. (Internet protocol) address. If the I.P. address changes, the web site would not be found and will appear offline – the browser will display a cannot find web site error. For details, read differences between your home computer and a web Server.

Computers Questions & Answers M pharm B Pharm - 1 st 2nd Year D B M Pharmacy
The web server program – the software

A web server program is software that runs on the web site hosting Server computer. Its main purpose is to serve web pages; which means it waits for requests from web browsers (also known as clients) and responds by sending the required data back. This client-server interaction is the hallmark of the web!

There are many web server programs available- check list of web servers. The most famous and popular of all web servers is Apache developed by the Apache Foundation. Not only is Apache free but it’s also available for several operating systems including Windows, Macintosh and Linux/Unix.

FYI, differentiating the server program (software) and the Server computer (hardware) by the case of the first letter is suggested and followed only by purists – it is not a rule. Generally, readers quickly understand from the context whether one is referring to the hardware or the software.
What is the role of web server on the Internet?

Web servers – the computer or the program – have a vital role on the Internet. The Server machine hosts (stores) the web site on its hard disk while the server program helps deliver the web pages and their associated files like images and flash movies.

The process of loading a web site/page in a web browser starts with the user either entering the URL in the address bar or clicking on a link. You should know that each web page has a unique address (or URL) on the internet; which means the same page cannot exist in two places. (If a copy does exist in another location, its address would be different from that of the original).

The browser now needs to send out a request for the web page. Behind the scenes, the URL of the requested web page is resolved into an I.P. address, which, in English, means, converted to an I.P. address – something that computers understand. The I.P. address points to the location of the web site host and the request is forwarded to Server computer and passed on to the server software.

The server software now takes up and hunts for the requested web page on the hard disk. On finding the file, it sends a response and the web page file to the browser which then starts displaying the page. A typical web page not only has text but also embedded multimedia elements like images and Flash animation.

These “extra” files are separate from the actual web page and need to be sent one by one for the browser to display the web page correctly. Note (and an important one), ONLY the web browser determines how a web page is displayed; the web server has no control over this. The job of a web server ends once it processes the request from a browser and sends the required information.

Though the request-and-response process might seem to take time especially when you consider that the client and server computers might be thousands of miles apart, it actually happens very fast. That’s because of the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) which is a set of rules developed by the “big lads” to facilitate the transfer of data over the internet.
.

Every website needs a reliable web server to be hosted on, so that it can be accessed via internet users. Today, in web hosting market there are many types of web servers available running on different platform to select. types are There is a wide range of web servers running on different platform to choose from within the web hosting market today. As per the Netcraft, a company that keeps statistics on the leading web servers and the platforms on the Internet, the most popular platforms and web servers are:

• UNIX and Linux running Apache web server
• Window NT/2000 running Internet Information Server (IIS)
The other web server includes WebLogic, iPlanet, Sun ONE, Zeus and etc… Given the widespread popularity of Apache (closed to 60% market share) and Microsoft IIS (approximately 30%), you can almost guarantee you can find these two platforms are supported by most of the web hosting providers.
Operating systems are an importance piece of software that is required by each computer to be installed before it can function properly. Today, most of the personal computers are running on Microsoft Windows operating system: Win98, WinXP or Win2000.
Likewise, all web servers need operating system to perform different functionalities and different web servers run on different operating systems (or so called platforms). One of the most commonly found platform is UNIX that comes in various varieties that are popular with web hosts, including FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD and Linux. Another popular platform that has gained strong ground as a platform for web hosting market is Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows Server 2003.
How do you choose your web server platform?
If your website is purely make up of static web pages (i.e. HTML files), then any web hosting platform will work fine for you. However, if your website allows dynamic content, you will most likely need to run specific server-side functionality such as CGI scripts, JSP, ASP, SSI or PHP. In this case, UNIX platform web hosting will be ideal for your requirement.
On the other hand, if you need to use specific applications that require Windows to run such as ASP, .Net, MS Access, Microsoft SQL server or Cold Fusion, then you will need to find a web hosting providers that support Microsoft’s Windows NT platform. Otherwise, all other server-side functionalities such as PHP, Perl and MySQL can be supported by UNIX platform.
While common programs such as Perl, PHP, Flash etc run on both UNIX and Window platform. Many other free open source software programs are available only for UNIX than for Windows. As a result, UNIX hosting is less expensive than Window hosting. So, if hosting cost is a big concern to you, then you should consider UNIX or Linux hosting.
If you have already decided on the type of design on your web pages, make sure you can find a web hosting plan that support your needs by reading the full features of the web hosting plan before you sign-up.

6.“The potential of world wide web (WWW) on the internet has led to an explosion in commercial activity”. Discuss.

As a commercial medium, the Web offers a number of important benefits which can be examined at both the customer and firm levels. In this way, we can address both demand and supply issues. We discuss the buyer benefits first, followed by the firm benefits. Buyer benefits arise primarily from the structural characteristics of the medium and include availability of information, provision of search mechanisms, and online product trial all of which can lead to reduced uncertainty in the purchase decision. Firm benefits arise from the potential of the Web as a distribution channel, a medium for marketing communications, and a market in and of itself. These efficiencies are associated with Web technology and the interactive nature of the medium.
1.1Consumer Benefits
One important consumer benefit associated with marketing on the Web is the access to greater amounts of dynamic information to support queries for consumer decision making. Hence marketing communications on the Web are more consumer-driven than those provided by traditional media.
In addition to the above, the advantages for industrial consumers are reduced costs to buyers from increased competition in procurement as more suppliers are able to compete in an electronically open marketplace. This increase in competition leads to better quality and variety of goods through expanded markets and the ability to produce customized goods (IITA 1994).

1.2. Benefits to the Firm

Distribution

Firm benefits arise partly from the use of the Web as a distribution channel. First, the Web potentially offers certain classes of providers participation in a market in which distribution costs or cost- of-sales shrink to zero. This is most likely for firms in publishing, information services or digital product categories (Jones 1995). For example, digital products can be delivered immediately, hence such businesses may encounter massive disintermediation or even the eventual elimination of middleman (Michalski 1995). Moreover buyers and sellers can access and contact each other directly, potentially elmininating some of the marketing cost and constraints imposed by such interactions in the terrestial world. This may also have the effect of shrinking the channel and making distribution much more efficient (mainly due to reduced overhead costs through such outcomes as uniformity, automation, and large-scale integration of management processes). Time to complete business transactions may be reduced as well, translating into additional efficiencies for the firm. However, such potential efficiencies must be tempered with market realities (Kline 1995).
Second, business on the Web transfers more of the selling function to the customer, through online ordering and the use of fill-out-forms (Michalski 1995) thus helping to bring transactions to a conclusion. This permits a third benefit in the form of capture of customer information. The technology offers the firm the opportunity to gather market intelligence and monitor consumer choices through customers’ revealed preferences in navigational and purchasing behavior in the Web. Note however that there are many social, legal and technological issues and drawbacks at the present level of technology which prevent the full capitalization of this benefit (see, for example, Caruso 1995).
Marketing Communications

At the present time, most firms use the Web primarily to deliver information about the firm and its offerings and for both internal and external communication (Magid 1995, Sharples 1995) with other firms and consumers. The interactive nature of the medium (see Hoffman & Novak 1995 for discussion) offers another category of firm benefits since it is especially conducive to developing customer relationships. This potential for customer interaction, which is largely asynchronous under current implementations, facilitates relationship marketing and customer support (Cuneo 1995) to a greater degree than ever before possible with traditional media.

Web sites are available on demand to consumers 24 hours a day. The interactive nature of the medium can be used by marketers to hold the attention of the consumer by engaging the consumer in an asynchronous “dialogue” that occurs at both parties’ convenience. This capability of the medium offers unprecedented opportunities to tailor communications precisely to individual customers, allowing individual consumers to request as much information as each desires. Further, it allows the marketer to obtain relevant information from customers for the purposes of serving them more effectively in the future.

The simplest implementations involve engaging customers through the use of email buttons located strategically on the site. More sophisticated implementations may involve fill-out- forms and other incentives designed to engage customers in ongoing relationships with the firm. The objective of such continuous relationship-building is dual-pronged: to give consumers information about the firm and its offering and to receive information from consumers about their needs with respect to such offerings. Hence, effective customized advertising, promotion and customer service (Berniker 1995) is the fifth benefit that the commercial Web offers to the firm.

Operational Benefits

Operational benefits of Web use for industrial sellers are reduced errors, time, and overhead costs in information processing; reduced costs to suppliers by electronically accessing on-line databases of bid opportunities, online abilities to submit bids, and online review of awards.

7. Discuss the uses of Internet activity?

Americans spend nearly a quarter of their time online on social networking sites and blogs, up from 15.8 percent just a year ago (43 percent increase) according to new research released today from The Nielsen Company. The research revealed that Americans spend a third their online time (36 percent) communicating and networking across social networks, blogs, personal email and instant messaging.
Top 10 Sectors by Share of U.S. Internet Time
1 Social Networks
2 Online Games
3 E-mail
4 Portals
5 Instant Messaging
6 Videos/Movies
7 Search
8 Software Manufacturers
9 Multi-category Entertainment
10 Classifieds/Auctions

Internet has become a part of our everyday life. From being used in defense purposes by the United States military for communication initially, to being used worldwide for hundreds of thousands of different purposes, internet has come a long way. Internet is there to stay with us and has taken a place where it is a part of our every day life now.

There are millions of applications of internet. We are in fact as dependent on internet as we are on other utility things like electricity, water etc. In fact many people would think that a part of their life is missing if they are not able to log on for even one day.

Before a few years, people used to get up in the morning and read the newspaper or watch television. Now most people log onto the internet first thing in the morning. So when internet has become so essential in our daily life, what are the things that can be done on the internet and what are it’s many uses?

The following are a list of some of the major uses of the internet :

1. Search engine :
It can be used to search anything and everything. Most popular search engines are google and yahoo searches.

2. Shopping:
Shopping has become easier with the advent of internet. You can buy or sell online.

3. Communication :
This is a major role of the internet. It helps people to communicate either with the use of social networking websites or through e mails. Even chatting is a major use of the internet.

4. Job search:
Nowadays, many people search for their jobs online as it is quicker and there is a larger variety of job vacancies present.

5. Hobbies:
Those who are having certain hobbies can try to improve on it by reading up on many aspects of their hobby.

6. Research: Research papers are present online which helps in the researcher doing a literature review.

7. Studying:
Now right from kinder garden children are exposed to internet and computers. They find many useful things to learn on the internet(though with supervision). Upto doctorate level education, people rely on internet for their education. Online educational books have even reduced the need for a library.

These are only some of the uses of the internet. There are so many more that will can be listed forever. There are also negative aspects of the internet. But the onus is on the user to make use of the internet for it’s benefits and leave all the negative aspects.

Advantages of internet :-

There many advantages to using the internet such as:
Email.
E-mail is an online correspondence system. With e-mail you can send and receive instant electronic messages, which works like writing letters. Your messages are delivered instantly to people anywhere in the world, unlike traditional mail that takes a lot of time. Email is now an essential communication tools in business. It is also excellent for keeping in touch with family and friends. The advantages to email is that it is free ( no charge per use) when compared to telephone, fax and postal services.

Information.
The Internet is a virtual treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any topic under the sun is available on the Internet. The ‘search engines’ on the Internet can help you to find data on any subject that you need.
There is a huge amount of information available on the internet for just about every subject known to man, ranging from government law and services, trade fairs and conferences, market information, new ideas and technical support.

Services.
Many services are now provided on the internet such as online banking, job seeking and applications, and hotel reservations. Often these services are not available off-line or cost more.

Buy or sell products

The internet is a very effective way to buy and sell products all over the world. Along with getting information on the Internet, you can also shop online. There are many online stores and sites that can be used to look for products as well as buy them using your credit card. You do not need to leave your house and can do all your shopping from the convenience of your home.

Communities.

Communities of all types have sprung up on the internet. Its a great way to meet up with people of similar interest and discuss common issues.

Online Chat:
There are many ‘chat rooms’ on the web that can be accessed to meet new people, make new friends, as well as to stay in touch with old friends.

Downloading Software:
This is one of the most happening and fun things to do via the Internet. You can download innumerable, games, music, videos, movies, and a host of other entertainment software from the Internet, most of which are free.

8. How is internet used by legal practitioners?

The use of the Internet and its component part, the World Wide Web, has grown tremendously in recent years.

Lawyers and others seeking legal information have not been left out in the cold in terms of legal information available on the Internet. Currently available for free are court cases, statutes, regulations, publications, and decisions and orders.

Materials are available not only from federal government sources, but also from state and local sources. This article will look at legal resources on the Internet, how to find them, and what to look for when you do find them.

There are a number of ways to locate legal information on the Internet. One is to use columns or articles in traditional publications. Another is to search the Internet using Web sites established for this purpose, called “search engines.” Lawyers also can refer to the myriad Web sites with lists of legal resources available (resource listings that allow you to click and be taken to another site are called “links”) to find resources of interest.

Searching the Internet. Legal information on the Internet can be found either using “general” or “generic” search engines, or using law- and legal-specific resources. When using generic search engines, searches are best conducted using general descriptive terms such as “computer law” or “employment law” to find Web sites that contain information related to a specific legal topic.

Unless a case or legal concept is extremely well known, searching generic search engines using specific legal terms may not work well (returning no links or returning so many as not to be useful).

Searching generic search engines for specific resources such as the U.S. Supreme Court or the New York State Assembly probably will provide good results. While utilizing generic search engines may help get to general area concepts and sites, using the more specific legal search engines likely will provide more efficient results when searching for specific legal information.

Information and help on searching can be found at “The Spider’s Apprentice” http://www.monash.com/spidap.html. (Because the World Wide Web often is called just “the Web,” allusions to “spiders” that “crawl around” the Web are common). The State University at Albany also maintains a site dedicated to search engines, including descriptions of the various search engines and the data they contain at http://www.albany.edu/library/internet/engines.html.

Using listings and directories.

Many of the generic and legal-specific search engines also contain indices or directories of information organized by topic. Add to these the plethora of sites that list only legal resources–without the ability to undertake the Web-wide database searches offered by the search engines– and the searching attorney should find more than adequate direction in undertaking legal research on the Internet. Attorneys often find a specific legal site that works best for them, and “bookmark” or choose such site as a “favorite” to start from when conducting legal research.

Other resources on the Web.

In addition to search engines, links and directories, there is a tremendous wealth of organizational and secondary material on the Internet. Legal news can be found, often from “name brand” publications updated daily (or even more frequently). Bar associations, often with resources and link pages of their own, also are on the Web, offering member services and information designed to assist their lawyer membership.

A note of caution about using secondary sources is that the Web does not discriminate based on content, quality or accuracy of information. Anyone with a Web account, appropriate software and a little bit of knowledge, can have a Web page. Before relying upon something you have found on the Web other than primary authority obtained from a verified source, read it extremely critically.

There are reported occasions where non-lawyers have put up legal sites (often related to litigation they themselves have gone through) with inaccurate information. Even reputable sources such as daily legal news producers have included articles with inaccurate information.

One legal news site recently included an article on attorney-client privilege and e-mail and stated that New York had considered–but not adopted–a change in the law to protect such communications. In fact, New York did adopt that law in 1998, and after notification the article has been changed to reflect the true state of the law.

Because Web publishing is not subject to the same requirements as print publications, often even skimping in the area of editing and review of content, attorneys need to be careful not to rely too heavily on information found at “unofficial” or secondary sites.

In using cases and statutes, make certain to get the text from an approved or official site. If using secondary materials from a publication that is otherwise in print (such as a law review), this concern is diminished.

9.Define networking? Highlight the issues of network security?

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications and allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected devices. Put more simply, a computer network is a collection of two or more computers linked together for the purposes of sharing information, resources, among other things. Computer networking or Data Communications (Datacom) is the engineering discipline concerned with computer networks. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology and/or computer engineering since it relies heavily upon the theoretical and practical application of these scientific and engineering disciplines
Businesses are using networking for communication with clients and employees and Make a productive, innovative, shared work environment. So sometimes they ignore many security issues to get the network up and running. The following are a few common network security issues which are ignored by the owner.
1. Improper/weak passwords. The Password is simplest form of security. By leaving passwords easy(i.e., password/admin/your name/mobile no. or city ), unauthorized Hackers are practically invited to view Important data. Passwords are more secure when they contain both letters and numbers in a combination of upper-case and lower-case characters, special character and they should be changed periodically.
2. Lack of education. Educated users in the use of their Services, especially with regard to e-mail, attachments, and downloads. They need to know exactly what kinds of threats are out there. Uneducated computer users are often those who fall victim to malware’s, spywares, keyloggers, viruses, and phishing attacks, all of which are designed to Harm the systems or leak personal details like passwords, login details to a third party without the user’s permission.
3. No backups. Idleness is one of the biggest security threats. It’s considerably more difficult to completely re-create a crippled system than it is to take the time to take proper backups of your data. Create backups often, and do not immediately overwrite or delete them with the next set of backups. In advance, make copies of backup’s and keep them off-site in case of emergency.
4. Plug and surf. Unfortunately, computers are not designed to be connected to the Internet straight out of the box. Before a phone line, Ethernet cable, or wireless Device is anywhere near a new computer, install a line of Protection software. So this should include Protection from viruses, multiple spyware scanners, and a program that runs in the background to prevent malicious software from ever being installed.
5. Not updating. What good are all those virus and spyware scanners if they’re not updated? It’s very important to update what are called the “virus/spyware databases” every week. This keeps the scanners up-to-date to detect the latest Viruses and malicious software’s.
6. Ignoring security patches. Security holes may exist in your so perating System. No software is perfect. Once an vulnerability or hole is found, it’s usually exploited within a very short period of time. Therefore, it is imperative to install security patches as soon as possible in your system.
7. Trust. Ads on the Internet have become tortuous and illusive. They now appear as “urgent system error messages” and warnings designed to scare users into clicking. As a rule of thumb, if a popup window contains an ad claiming to end popups, chances are it’s a scam.
8. Not using encryption. Encryption is very important when dealing with online banking and credit cards payments. Storing and transferring unencrypted data is the equivalent of posting that data for everyone to see. If you’re not comfortable implementing encryption technology, have an IT specialist assist you.
9. Trying to do it all yourself. Setting up a network, applying proper security measures, and downloading and installing software can be tricky. Large companies have IT departments. Small business owners should also ask for advice or even hire help. It’s worth the extra cost.
10. Proper instruction. Security measures are most effective if everyone is aware of how the system works. Give employees a brief overview of the security measures they’re expected to follow.
So these are a few common network security issues which should not ignore by a good business owner

10.“Security is a term with both a business meaning and a technical meaning”. Discuss the statement in terms of security basics?

10. “Security is a term with both a business meaning and a technical meaning”. Discuss the statement in terms of security basics?

Security Management for networks is different for all kinds of situations. A home or small office would only require basic security while large businesses will require high maintenance and advanced software and hardware to prevent malicious attacks from hacking and spamming.
Homes & Small Businesses
• A basic firewall or a unified threat management system.
• For Windows users, basic Antivirus software. An anti-spyware program would also be a good idea. There are many other types of antivirus or anti-spyware programs out there to be considered.
• When using a wireless connection, use a robust password. Also try to use the strongest security supported by your wireless devices, such as WPA2 with AES encryption.
• If using Wireless: Change the default SSID network name, also disable SSID Broadcast; as this function is unnecessary for home use. (However, many security experts consider this to be relatively useless. http://blogs.zdnet.com/Ou/index.php?p=43 )
• Enable MAC Address filtering to keep track of all home network MAC devices connecting to your router.
• Assign STATIC IP addresses to network devices.
• Disable ICMP ping on router.
• Review router or firewall logs to help identify abnormal network connections or traffic to the Internet.
• Use passwords for all accounts.
• Have multiple accounts per family member, using non-administrative accounts for day-to-day activities. Disable the guest account (Control Panel> Administrative Tools> Computer Management> Users).
• Raise awareness about information security to children.[5]
Medium businesses
• A fairly strong firewall or Unified Threat Management System
• Strong Antivirus software and Internet Security Software.
• For authentication, use strong passwords and change it on a bi-weekly/monthly basis.
• When using a wireless connection, use a robust password.
• Raise awareness about physical security to employees.
• Use an optional network analyzer or network monitor.
• An enlightened administrator or manager.
Large businesses
• A strong firewall and proxy to keep unwanted people out.
• A strong Antivirus software package and Internet Security Software package.
• For authentication, use strong passwords and change it on a weekly/bi-weekly basis.
• When using a wireless connection, use a robust password.
• Exercise physical security precautions to employees.
• Prepare a network analyzer or network monitor and use it when needed.
• Implement physical security management like closed circuit television for entry areas and restricted zones.
• Security fencing to mark the company’s perimeter.
• Fire extinguishers for fire-sensitive areas like server rooms and security rooms.
• Security guards can help to maximize security.

B Pharm 2nd Year Subjects – Bachelor of Pharmacy Second Year

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B Pharm 2nd Year Subjects - Bachelor of Pharmacy Second Year

B Pharm 2nd Year Subjects – Bachelor of Pharmacy Second Year  are included in this article. The Bachelor of Pharmacy course is a four year course and is offered by many universities across the country.The BPharm course as it is known, equips the student to face the highly challenging world of medicines and drugs.

Different universities offer a different combination of subjects. Some universities in the quest to equip their students with the extra edge, have introduced courses like Human Rights and communication skills. 

In the new millennium, good communication skills are definitely a must have for any professional.

B Pharm 2nd Year Subjects - Bachelor of Pharmacy Second Year

B Pharm 2nd Year Subjects :

A few subjects prescribed by the Council for Technical education are:

-Pharmaceutics

– Preperative Pharmacy

-Organic chemistry

-Hospital and community pharmacy

-Organic chemistry

– Pathophysiology

-Analytical pharmacognosy.

– Pathophysiology.

Along with these subjects, there are colleges that also have included subjects like Environmental science, entrepreneurship,  professional ethics and Human Rights. 

Bachelor of Pharmacy Second Year in Different Universities

The course is divided into theory and practical portions. They are trained how to put their theoretical knowledge to use during the practical sessions.

The Uttar Pradesh university has also introduced new subjects that can be opted for with additional credits. The subjects cater to the need of the hour – cyber security and human values. 

The Rajasthan university has changed with the times and has introduced computer applications in both theory and practical subjects.

Along with the subjects related to the basic course,  emphasis  is laid on personality grooming and life skills needed to survive the tough competition of the profession also.

The pharmacist may also venture out into production of field work depending on his interest. There is a lateral entry as second year for students who are joining after D. Pharm. A post diploma admission. The subsequent course is the same.

The first and the second year of this course is the basics of the subject.  There is also an introduction to the other basic medical sciences so that the pharmacist has a thorough knowledge of the drug metabolism and its effects and side effects on the human body.

Just as a strong foundation supports a strong building, a strong  basic knowledge is the basis of a successful career.

The elementary level of any course is of utmost importance all throughout. Hope you enjoyed reading all about B Pharm 2nd Year Subjects – Bachelor of Pharmacy Second Year .

B.Pharmacy 3rd Year Subjects & Syllabus B. Pharma Third Yr Results Books PDF

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B.Pharmacy 3rd Year Subjects & Syllabus B. Pharma Third Yr Results Books PDF

In this article we are going to discuss B.Pharmacy 3rd Year Subjects & Syllabus B. Pharma Third Yr Results Books PDF. 

B.Pharmacy 3rd Year Subjects and Syllabus

The B.Pharmacy is a bachelor course for pursuing studies in pharmacy. It is the basic course that can be pursued after 10+2 or any relevant approved diploma in medicine/pharmacy. The course guides students with the various aspects of medicines and pharmacy. They are taught about how medicines are really manufactured and dispersed. Apart from that, they are also guided on the various concepts of prescription of drugs. Overall, in the tenure of 4 years the students get aware about various aspects of industry and requirement in the contemporary scenario. They gather necessary knowledge and skillset that makes them ready to work in the pharmaceutical and medical industry.

The various premier organisations such as AICTE and UGC have decided to cater an industry ready course to students so as to increase the employability in the pharmacy sector. The industry demands lot of experienced candidates who can work with desired knowledge and skillset.

B.Pharmacy 3rd Year Subjects & Syllabus B. Pharma Third Yr Results Books PDF

Subjects in Third Year B.Pharmacy:

The course includes different basic and advanced subjects to introduce students with the pharmacy and medicine. The 3rd which can also be considered as V and 6 semesters caters these subjects to students which teach them pharmacy related concepts.

The subjects include- Pharmaceutics, Pharmaceutical chemistry, Pharmacognosy, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Microbiology, Pathophysiology of Common Diseases, Dispensing and Community Pharmacy.

Third Year Syllabus of B. Pharmacy:

The syllabus caters lot of knowledge about the various important and crucial subjects of Pharmacy. The course consists of both practical and theory subjects to give hands-on experience to students.

In terms of semester system, there are 2 evaluation exams and one end-semester exam. Whereas in year based system, there are various evaluation exam and one year end examination. The student grades are accessed on the basis of evaluation and main examination. The examination format consists of both- Theory and Practical Paper.

Apart from the essential theory and practical subjects of pharmacy, the students are also taught with the aspects of basic computers to help them carry out their work on computers. In this era of digital world, the information about computers and various essential programmes is must. This make students ready for industry and caters all-round skill development.

D. Pharmacy Subjects & Syllabus – D Pharma First [1st] & Second [2nd] Year Info

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D. Pharmacy Year wise Subjects & Syllabus - D Pharma 1st & 2nd Year

D.Pharm Year wise Subjects and Syllabus:

D.Pharma (a) also called Diploma in Pharmacy, is pursued by the students in the medical field of Pharmacy. In India, one is eligible to opt for this education course after successfully completing Standard Twelve in science stream with Physics, Chemistry and either Biology as subjects. Consequently, the successful completion of this course allows one to be employed as a Registered Pharmacist in Pharmacy shops selling medicine. In fact, it is mandatory presently to have at least one qualified D.Pharm person employed in pharmacy must. Hence, a student can go for undergraduate degree course of B.Pharm after pursuing of D.Pharm in India.

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D. Pharmacy Year wise Subjects & Syllabus - D Pharma 1st & 2nd Year

D. Pharmacy Curriculum

  • Duration of the course -2 years. Each academic year will spread for not more than 180 working days with 500 hours of practical training in 3 months.
  • Candidate should be at least 17 years of age while securing admission.

D. Pharmacy Eligibility

  • Eligibility- 10+2 passed with Science stream subjects (PCB or M) from a recognized board is the minimum educational qualification required (in some institutes, PCB subjects are mandatory). 

D. Pharmacy Entrance Examination:

  • Entrance Examination- It could be a direct admission or merit-based admission process. Reputed and well-established institutes follow their own entrance tests (while preparing the merit list).

Subjects for 1st year of D. Pharmacy

Subjects Theory Practical
Hours/Year Hours/week Hours/Year Hours/week
Pharmaceutics-I 75 3 100 4
Pharmaceutical Chemistry-I 75 3 75 3
Pharmacognosy 75 3 75 3
Biochemistry & Clinical Pathology 50 2 75 3
Human Anatomy & Physiology 75 3 50 2
Health Education & community pharmacy 50 2    
400 16 375 15

 

 

D. Pharmacy Syllabus for 1st year

Subjects Syllabus
Theory Practical
 

 

Pharmaceutics-I

 Introduction of different dosage forms, Metrology, Packaging of pharmaceuticals, Size separation, Mixing and Homogenization, Clarification and Filtration, Extraction and Galenicals, Distillation, Introduction to drying process, Sterilization, Aseptic techniques, Processing of Tablets, Processing of Capsules, Study of immunological products Preparation of  Aromatic waters(3), Solutions(4),Spirits(2),Tinctures(4),Extracts(2)Creams(2), Cosmetic preparations(3), Capsules(2), Tables(2), Preparations involving(2), Ophthalmic preparations(2), Preparations involving aseptic techniques(2)
 

 

Pharmaceutical Chemistry-I

 Acids, bases and buffers, Antioxidants, Gastrointestinal agents, Topical Agents, Antimicrobials and Astringents, Dental Products, Respiratory stimulants, Expectorants and Emetics, Antidotes, Major Intra and Extra cellular electrolytes, Inorganic official compounds, Radio pharmaceuticals and contrast media, Quality control of Drugs and pharmaceuticals, Identification tests for cations and anions. Identification tests for inorganic compounds particularly drugs and pharmaceuticals, Limit test for chloride, Sulphate, Arsenic, Iron and Heavy metals, Assay of inorganic pharmaceuticals involving each of the following methods of compounds marked with (*) under theory. i. Acid-Base titrations (at least 3) ii. Redox titrations (one each of permanganometry and iodimetry). iii. Precipitation titrations (at least 2) iv. Complexometric titration (Calcium and Magnesium)
 

 

Pharmacognosy

 Definition, history and scope of Pharmacogonosy ,Various systems of classification of drugs and natural origin, Adulteration and drug evaluation, Brief outline of f alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, volatile oils, tannins and resins, Occurrence, distribution, organoleptic evaluation, chemical constituents, Pharmaceutical aids, Miscellaneous Identification of drugs by morphological characters. Physical and chemical tests for evaluation of drugs wherever applicable. Gross anatomical studies (t.s.) of the following drugs – Senna, Datura, cinnamon, cinchona, coriander, fennel, clove, Ginger, Nux-vomica, Ipecacuanha, Identification of fibers and surgical dressing.
 

 

Biochemistry & Clinical Pathology

 Introduction to biochemistry,Carbohydrates, Lipids,Vitamins, Enzymes, Therapeutics (Lymphocytes and platelets, their role in health
and disease. Erythrocytes)		 Detection and identification of proteins. Amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids. Analysis of normal and abnormal constituents of Blood and Urine (Glucose, urea, creatine, cretinine, cholesterol, alkaline phosphatatase acid phosphatase, Bilirubin, SGPT, SGOT, calcium, Diastase,Lipase), Examination of sputum and faeces (microscopic & staining), Practice in injecting drugs by intramuscular, subcutaneous and intravenous routes, withdrawal of blood
samples.
 

 

 

Human Anatomy & Physiology

 Scope of Anatomy and physiology, Elementary tissues, Skeletal System, Cardiovascular System, Respiratory system, Urinary System, Muscular System,Central Nervous System, Sensory Organs, Digestive System, Endocrine System, Reproductive system Study of the human Skeleton, Study with the help of charts and models of the following system and organs, Digestive system, Respiratory system, Ear, Cardiovascular system, Urinary system, Reproductive system Eye, Microscopic examination of epithelial tissue, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, Connective tissue and nervous tissues, Examination of blood films for TLC.DLC and malaria parasite, Determination of RBCs, clotting time of blood, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and Hemoglobin value, Recording of body temperature, pulse, heart-rate, blood pressure and ECG.
 

 

Health Education & community pharmacy

 Concept of health,Nutrition and health, First aid, Environment and health,Fundamental principles of microbiology, Communicable diseases, Respiratory infections, Intestinal infection, Arthropod borne infections, Surface infection,
Sexually transmitted diseases, Non-communicable diseases, Epidemiology		  

 

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What to do After D. Pharmacy?

D. Pharmacy Subjects for 2nd year

Subjects Theory Practical
Hours/Year Hours/week Hours/Year Hours/week
Pharmaceutics-II 75 3 100 4
Pharmaceutical Chemistry-II 100 4 75 3
Pharmacology & Toxicology 75 3 50 2
Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence 50 2    
Drug store and Business Management 75 3    
Hospital & Clinical Pharmacy 50 3 50 2
450 18 275 11

D. Pharmacy Syllabus for 2nd year

Subjects Syllabus
Theory Practical
Pharmaceutics-II Prescriptions, Incompatibilities in prescriptions, Posology, Dispensed Medications, Powders,Liquid oral Dosage forms: Monophasic, Biphasic Liquid Dosage Forms: Suspensions, Emulsions, Semi-Solid Dosage Forms: Ointments, Pastes, Jellies, Suppositories and peassaries,Dental and cosmetic preparations, Sterile Dosage forms: Parenteral dosage forms, Sterility testing, Ophthalmic products Dispensing of at least 100 products covering a wide range of preparations such as mixtures, emulsion,
solutions, liniments, E.N.T. preparations. Ointments, suppositories, powders, incompatible prescriptions
etc.
Pharmaceutical Chemistry-II Introduction to the nomenclature of organic chemical systems, The chemistry of pharmaceutical organic compounds (Antiseptics and Disinfectants, Sulphonamides,Antileprotic Drugs, Anti-tubercular Drugs, Antimoebic and Anthelmintic Drugs, Antibiotic, Antifungal agent,
Antimalarial Drugs, Tranquilizers, Hypnotics,General Anaesthetics, Antidepressant Drugs, Adrenergic drugs, Adrenergic antagonist,
Cholinergic Antagonists, Diuretic Drugs, Cardiovascular Drugs, Hypoglycemie Agents, Coagulants and Anti coagulants, Local Anaesthetics, Analgesics and Anti-pyretics, Non-steriodal anti-inflammatory agents, Diagnostic Agents, Anticonvulsants, cardiac glycosides, Antiarrhythmic, Antihypertensives & Vitamins, Steroidal Drugs, Anti-Neoplastic Drugs		 Systematic qualitative testing of organic drugs involving solubility determination, melting point and/or boiling point, detection of elements and functional groups (10 compounds). Official identification tests for certain groups of drugs included in the I.P. like barbiturates, sulfonamides, Phenothiazines, Antibiotics etc. (8 compounds). Preparation of three simple organic preparations.
Pharmacology & Toxicology Introduction to pharmacology, Routes of administration of drugs, General mechanism of drugs action, Drugs acting on the central Nervous system, Drugs acting on respiratory system, Autocoids, Cardio vascular drugs, Drugs affecting renal function, Hormones and hormone antagonists, Drugs acting on digestive system, Chemotherapy of microbial diseases, Disinfectants and antiseptics. The first six of the following experiments will be done by the students while the remaining will be demonstrated by the teacher. (Effect of potassium and calcium ions, acetylcholine and adrenaline on frog’s heart. Effect of acetyl choline on rectus abdomens muscle of frog and guinea pig ileum. Effect of spasmogens and relaxants on rabbit’s intestine. Effect of local anaesthetics on rabbit cornea. Effect of mydriatics and miotics on rabbit’s eye. To study the action of strychnine on frog. Effect of digitalis on frog’s heart. Effect of hypnotics in mice. Effect of convulsants and anticonvulsant in mice or rats.Test for pyrogens. Taming and hypnosis potentiating effect of chlorpromazine in mice/rats. Effect of diphenhydramine in experimentally produced asthma in guinea pigs.)
Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence Origin and nature of pharmaceutical legislation in India,Principles and significance of professional Ethics, Pharmacy Act,1948, The Drugs and Cosmetics Act,1940, The Drugs and Magic Remedies (objectionable Advertisement)Act, 1954, Narcotic Drugs and psychotropic substances Act,1985, Latest Drugs (price control) order in force. Poisons Act 1919(as amended to date)
Medicinal and Toilet preparations (excise Duties) Act, 1955 (as amended to date). Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971(as amended to date).		  

 

 

 

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Drug store and Business Management Part-I: Commerce- Introduction, Drug House Management, Sales, Recruitment, training, Banking and Finance.  Part-II: Accountancy – Introduction to the accounting concepts and conventions.                                                               

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Hospital & Clinical Pharmacy Part-I: Hospital Pharmacy-Hospital, Hospital Pharmacy, Drug Distribution system in Hospitals, Manufacturing, Sterile manufacture, Non-sterile manufacture, P.T.C.(pharmacy Therapeutic Committee), Hospital Formulary system, Drug Information service , Surgical dressing, Application of computers. Part II: Clinical Pharmacy- Introduction to Clinical pharmacy practice,
Modern dispensing aspects, Common daily terminology used in the practice of Medicine.
Disease, manifestation and patho-physiology, Physiological parameters with their significance.
Drug Interactions, Adverse Drug Reaction,
Drugs in Clinical Toxicity, Drug dependences,
Bio-availability of drugs.		  

 

 

 

 

 

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World Pharmacists Day 2018

Scope of Diploma in Pharmacy

In the employment areas of pharmacy, in the first place one can take up the role in Health Centres, Hospitals, Chemist shops, Drug Control Administration, Pharmaceutical firms, Sales and marketing department, Research Agencies Food and Drug Administration.

Also, a variety of pharmacy jobs are available as per the degree such as Technical Supervisor, Medical Transcriptionist, Pharmacist, Quality Analyst, Scientific Officer, Tutor, and Production Executive.

Hope our article on D. Pharmacy Year wise Subjects & Syllabus like D Pharma 1st & 2nd Year helped you to know what are all the subjects were included in the Diploma in pharmacy curriculum. 

What is IPR? Patent & Process of filing a Patent Application

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What is IPR Patent Process of filing a Patent Application

The purpose of a patent is to provide a form of protection for technological advances.  The theory is that patent protection will provide a reward not only for the creation of an invention, but also for the development of an invention to the point at which it is technologically feasible and marketable, and that this type of an incentive would promote additional creativity and encourage companies to continue their development of new technology to the point at which it is marketable, useful to the public and desirable for the public good.

 

The Patent system in India is governed by the Patents Act, 1970 (No 39 of 1970) & The Patents Rules 1972, effective from April 20,1972. Subsequently The Patents Act, 1970 is amended effective from January 1, 1995 & The Patents Rules, 1972 is amended effective from June 2, 1999.

DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR FILING AN PATENT APPLICATION

Application form in triplicate.

Provisional or complete specification in triplicate. If the provisional specification is filed it must be followed by complete specification within 12 months (15 months with extension).

Drawing in triplicate (if necessary).

Abstract of the invention (in triplicate).

Information and undertaking listing the number, filing date and current status of each foreign patent application in duplicate.

Priority document (if priority date is claimed).

Declaration of inventorship where provisional specification is followed by complete specification or in case of convention application.

Power of attorney (if filed through Patent Agent).

Fee in cash/by local cheque/by demand draft.

Where to apply? OFFICE FOR FILING AN APPLICATION

Application is required to be filed according to the territorial limits where the applicant or the first mentioned applicant in case of joint applicants for a patent normally resides or has domicile or has a place of business or the place from where the invention actually originated .If the applicant for the patent or party in a proceeding having no business, place or domicile in India., the appropriate office will be according to the address of service in India given by the applicant or party in a proceeding.

EXAMINATION & PUBLICATION

All the applications for patent accompanied by complete specification are examined substantively. A first examination report stating the objection(s) is communicated to the applicant or his agents. Application or complete specification may be amended in order to meet the objection(s). Normally all the objections must be met within 15 months from the date of first examination report. Extension of time for three months is available, but application for extension therefore must be made before the expiry of normal period of 15 months. If all the objections are not complied with within the normal period or within the extended period the application will be deemed to have been abandoned. When the application is found to be suitable for acceptance it is published in the gazette of India (Part III, Section2). It is deemed laid open to the public on the date of publication in the gazette of India.

OPPOSITION

Notice of opposition must be filed within four months of notification in the Gazette. Extension of one month is available, but must be applied for before expiry of initial four month period.

Process of Grant or Sealing of PATENT

If the application is not opposed or the opposition is decided in favour of the applicant or is not refused the patent is granted or sealed on payment of sealing fee within 6 months from the date of advertisement. However, it is extendable by three months.

REGISTER OF PATENTS

The Register of Patents will be kept in the Patent Office and its branch offices. Register of Patents can be inspected or extract from it can be obtained on payment of prescribed fee. Register of Patents contains full details of the Patent which include Patent number, the names and addresses of the patentee; notification of assignment etc.; renewals, particulars in respect of proprietorship of patent etc.

RIGHTS OF PATENTEE

A patent grant gives the patentee the exclusive right to make or use the patented article or use the patented process. He can prevent all others from making or using the patented process. A patentee has also the right to assign the patent, grant licenses under, or otherwise deal with it for any consideration. These rights created by statute are circumscribed by various conditions and limitations.

RENEWAL FEE

Renewal fees are payable every year. The first renewal fee is payable for third year of the patent’s life, and must be paid before the patent’s second anniversary. If the patent has not been issued within that period, renewal fees may be accumulated and paid immediately after the patent is sealed, or within three months of its recordal in the Register of the Patents.

Date of payment of Renewal fees is measured from the date of the patent. Six months’ grace is available with Extension fee. No renewal fees are payable on patents of addition, unless the original patent is revoked and the patent of addition is converted into an independent patent; renewal fees then become payable for the remainder of the term of the main patent.

No renewal fees are payable during the pendency of the application for a patent; renewal fees that become overdue during pendency are payable upon sealing within three months of recordal in the Patent Register.

What is IPR Patent Process of filing a Patent Application

WORKING

Annual reports as to the extent of working, by every patentee and licensee, are a statutory requirement and must be submitted by March, 31 each year for the previous year ending December, 31.

COMPULSORY LICENSE AND LICENSE OF RIGHT

On failure to work a patent within three years from the date of its sealing, an interested party may file petition for grant of a compulsory license.

Every patent for an invention relating to a method or process for manufacture of substances intended for use, or capable of being used, as food, medicines, or drugs, or relating to substances prepared or produced by chemical process (including alloys, optical glass, semi-conductors and inter-metallic compounds) shall be deemed to be endorsed “Licenses of Right” from the date of expiry of three years from the date of sealing the patent.

ASSIGNMENT

Applications must be filed on the prescribed form with the Controller for the registration of assignments and any other documents creating an interest in a patent in order for them to be valid. In order to be valid, an assignment must be recorded within six months from the date of the document. A six-months extension may be obtained.

LICENSE

Applications must be filed on the prescribed form with the Controller for the registration of licenses and any other documents creating an interest in a patent in order for them to be valid. A license must be recorded within six months from the date of the document.

DURATION

A patent lasts for 14 years from the date of filing the complete specification (if an application is filed with provisional specification on January 1, 1989, and a complete specification is filed on January 1, 1990, the duration is counted from January 1, 1990). However, for food, drug and insecticide patents, the life is seven years from the date of complete specification, or five years from date of sealing, whichever is shorter.

RESTORATION

Application for restoration of a patent that lapses due to nonpayment of renewal fees must be made within one year of lapse. If an overdue annuity is not paid within the extension period, the one-year period for seeking restoration commences from the date of recordal.

INFRINGEMENT

Infringement can consist of taking away essential features of the patented invention; utilizing claimed features; copying patented substances; mechanical equivalence; taking part of the invention. while the patent is in force. Use by the government or for government purposes is not infringement. Such use must be paid for on terms to be agreed upon before or after use. Accidental or temporary use, use for research, use on foreign vessels, do not constitute infringement.

APPEAL

Appeal lies in the High Court. Appeal must be lodged within three months from the decision of the Controller.

Autoclave Sterilization Principle & Working PDF PPT – Autoclave Validation – Autoclave Diagram

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Autoclave Sterilization Principle & Working Diagram

Autoclave Sterilization: Autoclaves provide a physical method for disinfection and sterilization. They work with a combination of steam, pressure and time. Autoclaves operate at high temperature and pressure in order to kill microorganisms and spores.

Autoclave Sterilization

Autoclave Sterilizers are used to decontaminate certain biological waste and sterilize media, instruments and lab ware. Regulated medical waste that might contain bacteria, viruses and other biological material are recommended to be inactivated by autoclaving before disposal.

An autoclave is used to sterilize surgical equipment, laboratory instruments, pharmaceutical items, and other materials. It can sterilize solids, liquids, hollows, and instruments of various shapes and sizes. Autoclaves vary in size, shape and functionality. A very basic autoclave is similar to a pressure cooker; both use the power of steam to kill bacteria, spores and germs resistant to boiling water and powerful detergents.

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List of Banned Drugs  – PDF Full Download – 2018 – Latest News

Autoclave Sterilizers:

To be effective against spore forming bacteria and viruses, autoclaves need to have steam in direct contact with the material being sterilized (i.e. loading of items is very important).

Create vacuum in order to displace all the air initially present in the autoclave and replacing it with steam.

Implement a well designed control scheme for steam evacuation and cooling so that the load does not perish.

The efficiency of the sterilization process depends on two major factors. One of them is the thermal death time, i.e. the time microbes must be exposed to at a particular temperature before they are all dead. The second factor is the thermal death point or temperature at which all microbes in a sample are killed.

The steam and pressure ensure sufficient heat is transferred into the organism to kill them. A series of negative pressure pulses are used to vacuum all possible air pockets, while steam penetration is maximized by application of a succession of positive pulses

Autoclave Sterilization Principle & Working PDF PPT - Autoclave Validation - Autoclave Diagram

Autoclave Uses & Advantages:

An autoclave chamber sterilizes medical or laboratory instruments by heating them above boiling point. Most clinics have tabletop autoclaves, similar in size to microwave ovens. Hospitals use large autoclaves, also called horizontal autoclaves. They’re usually located in the the Central Sterile Services Department CSSD) and can process numerous surgical instruments in a single sterilization cycle, meeting the ongoing demand for sterile equipment in operating rooms and emergency wards.

They are important in tattoo shops, beauty and barber shops, dentist offices, veterinarians and many other fields.

Autoclave disadvantages:

Autoclave is unsuitable for heat sensitive objects.

Autoclaves Working Principle:

Autoclaves use pressurized steam as their sterilization agent. The basic concept of an autoclave is to have each item sterilized -whether it is a liquid, plastic ware, or glassware- come in direct contact with steam at a specific temperature and pressure for a specific amount of time. Time, steam, temperature, and pressure are the four main parameters required for a successful sterilization using an autoclave.

The amount of time and temperature required for sterilization depends on the type of material being autoclaved. Using higher temperatures for sterilization requires shorter times. The most common temperatures used are 121 C and 132 C. In order for steam to reach these high temperatures, steam has to be pumped into the chamber at a pressure higher than normal atmospheric pressure.

Now that we have covered the basic principle of how autoclaves use pressurized steam to sterilize contaminated materials, we will now go over how autoclaves operate.

Autoclave Design Diagram & Parts

Autoclave Sterilization Principle & Working Diagram

Similar to pressure cookers, steam sterilizer autoclaves work quickly and effectively because of their high temperature. The machine’s temperature and unique shape make it easier to hold the heat inside much longer. The autoclave also does a great job of efficiently penetrating each piece of equipment. The autoclave’s chambers are usually in the shape of a cylinder because cylindrical shapes are more equipped to handle the high pressure that is needed for the sterilization process to work. For safety reasons, there is an outside lock and a safety valve that prevents the autoclave steam sterilizer’s pressure from getting too high.

Once you close the autoclave sterilizer chamber, a vacuum pump removes all the air from inside the device or it is forced out by pumping in steam. If done the first way, the sterilizer is pumped with high pressured steam to quickly raise the internal temperature. On every autoclave there is a thermometer that is waiting for the thermal sweet point, 268-273 degrees Fahrenheit, and then it starts its timer. During the sterilizing process, steam is continuously entering the autoclave to thoroughly kill all dangerous microorganisms. Once the required time of sterilization has the elapsed, the chamber will be exhausted of pressure and steam allowing the door to open for cooling and drying of the contents.

Mode of Action Autoclave Sterilizers:

Moist heat destroys microorganisms by the irreversible coagulation and denaturation of enzymes and structural proteins. In support of this fact, it has been found that the presence of moisture significantly affects the coagulation temperature of proteins and the temperature at which microorganisms are destroyed.

Autoclave Working – Operation:

Place containers in the autoclave.

Check the strainer to see if it is clogged. The strainer is located on the bottom of the chamber near the door. The autoclave will not come up to pressure if the strainer is clogged.

Close door.

               For the SMALL autoclave, rotate the handle clockwise until it is snugly closed.     

                For the LARGE autoclave, rotate the small, inner handle clockwise first until it locks. Then rotate the large outer handle clockwise until it is snug.

Open the glass-faced door in the upper right corner. Set STERILIZE time and, if needed, set DRY time.

Select the SETTING you want by pushing in the colored button that corresponds to:

ON-OFF                FAST EXHAUST  FLUIDS  DRY

GREEN= FAST EXHAUST:  Pressure will decrease rapidly at the end of sterilization. Fluids will bubble over if you use this setting.

YELLOW= Fluids: Pressure decreases more slowly at the end of sterilization.

BLUE=Dry:  Use this setting for paper goods, cotton swabs, etc.

Push in the RED button to turn the autoclave on.

Wait until the temperature reaches 121°C and the RED sterilization light in the glass-faced box turns on before recording the Chamber Pressure on the Log. The chamber pressure should be 16-20 psi once the sterilization cycle starts. Anything below 16 psi should be reported to your lab manager.

At the end of the run, insure the CHAMBER PRESSURE has returned to ZERO before attempting to open the door. The FLUIDS cycle takes much longer than FAST EXHAUST – be patient. If the door cannot be easily opened, WAIT 10 minutes before trying again. If you wrench on the door and  attempt to force it open, the internal metal rod that connects to the door handle will twist from the pressure.

To open the door:

SMALL autoclave: rotate the handle counterclockwise. Be careful, steam burns!  Step to the side and crack open the door. Allow the steam to escape from the chamber then open the door and remove your items.

LARGE autoclave: First rotate the LARGE OUTER handle counterclockwise until it is loose. Next, rotate the SMALL INNER handle counterclockwise until the door opens. Be careful, steam burns!  Step to the side and crack open the door. Allow the steam to escape from the chamber then open the door and remove your items.

As a courtesy to others needing to use the autoclave, promptly remove your items when the cycle is completed and you can easily open the door. Wear protective, heat resistant gloves when removing items.

Autoclaved waste materials are to be taken directly to the dumpster for disposal. Orange autoclave bags must be put into black trash bags before disposing in the dumpster.

Autoclave Cycles

To be effective, the autoclave must reach and maintain a temperature of 121° C for at least 30 minutes by using saturated steam under at least 15 psi of pressure. Increased cycle time may be necessary depending upon the make-up and volume of the load.

The rate of exhaust will depend upon the nature of the load. Dry material can be treated in a fast exhaust cycle, while liquids and biological waste require slow exhaust to prevent boiling over of super-heated liquids.

Liquids cycle

 Liquids rely on the Liquids Cycle to avoid a phenomenon known as “boil-over.” Boil-over is simply a liquid boiling so violently that it spills over the top of its container.  Boil-over will occur if the pressure in your autoclave chamber is released too quickly during the exhaust phase of the cycle.  Significant liquid volume can be lost to boil-over, and this can result in unwanted spills on the bottom of the autoclave chamber that must be cleaned up to avoid clogging the drain lines and the subsequent repair costs to the department.

To help prevent boil-over during the exhaust phase, the chamber pressure must be released slowly.  This process is controlled by the sterilizer’s control system. Controlling the exhaust rate allows the liquid load to cool off as the surrounding chamber pressure is decreased.

The exhaust rate for a Liquids Cycle is different from a standard Gravity or Vacuum Cycle, where the chamber pressure is released quickly. To prevent boil-over, the chamber pressure must decrease slowly to allow the temperature of the load to remain below the boiling point.  If the pressure is exhausted all at once, the temperature of the load will be above its boiling point, resulting in instant and violent boiling.

(Slow Exhaust)

Material Recommended for:

Use with glass containers with vented closures; 2/3 full only

  • Liquid media
  • Nonflammable liquids
  • Aqueous solutions
  • Liquid biological waste

Solids or Dry cycle

(Fast Exhaust)

Material Recommended for:

Glassware: empty and inverted

no tight or impermeable closures

Dry hard items, either unwrapped or in porous wrap

Metal items with porous parts

Other porous materials

Gravity Cycle: Wrapped Goods or Pre vacuum cycle

(Clean: Fast Exhaust

Dirty: Slow Exhaust)

The traditional “Gravity Cycle” is the most common and simplest steam sterilization cycle. During a Gravity Cycle, steam is pumped into a chamber containing ambient air. Because steam has a lower density than air, it rises to the top of the chamber and eventually displaces all the air. As steam fills the chamber, the air is forced out through a drain vent. By pushing the air out, the steam is able to directly contact the load and begin to sterilize it.

At the end of the cycle, the steam is discharged through the drain vent. However, the load can still be hot and possibly wet. To address this issue, gravity autoclaves can be equipped with a post-cycle vacuum feature to assist in drying the load. The sterilizer runs a normal Gravity Cycle and after the load is sterilized, a vacuum pulls steam and condensation through the drain vent. The longer the vacuum system runs during the dry phase, the cooler and dryer the goods will be when removed from the chamber.

Gravity Cycles are commonly used on loads like glassware, bio-hazardous waste (autoclave bag waste), and wrapped and unwrapped instruments.

Material Recommended for:

Glassware that must be sterilized upright and/or can trap air

Wrapped dry items that can trap air

Pipette tip boxes

Sharps decontamination

(in collection containers)

Biohazard waste decontamination, in autoclave bags; can be wet or dry

Autoclave Types & Market

  • Medical autoclaves
  • Dental autoclaves
  • Laboratory autoclaves

Medical autoclaves

Tabletop autoclaves
large horizontal autoclaves
Plasma Sterilizer
Washer Disinfectors
Autoclaves maintain a healthy, clean and sterile environment.
Fast and effective disinfection of surgical instruments in preparation for sterilization is ensured by Autoclaves.
Autoclaves that satisfy the needs of any hospital operating room, central sterile services department or medical clinic.

Dental autoclaves

– ideal sterilizer for dentists

Laboratory autoclaves 

vertical loading autoclaves and fast liquid cooling autoclaves

Life science labs and research institutes need sterilization techniques inevitably

Autoclave Validation

Chemical Indicators

Tape Indicators

Tape indicators are adhesive-backed paper tape with heat sensitive, chemical indicator markings.  Tape indicators change color or display diagonal stripes, the words “sterile” or “autoclaved” when exposed to temperatures of 121°C.  Tape indicators are typically placed on the exterior of the waste load.  If the temperature sensitive tape does not indicate that a temperature of at least 121°C was reached during the sterilization process, the load is not considered decontaminated.   If tape indicators fail on two consecutive loads, notify your Department Safety Manager.

Tape indicators are not designed nor intended to prove that organisms have actually been killed. They indicate that a temperature of 121°C has been achieved within the autoclave.  EHS recommends that you DO NOT use autoclave tape as the only indicator of decontamination or sterilization.

Integrated Chemical Indicator Strips

Integrated chemical indicator strips provide a limited validation of temperature and time by displaying a color change after exposure to  normal autoclave operating temperatures of 121ºC for several minutes.  Chemical color change indicators can be placed within the waste load.  If the chemical indicators fail on two consecutive loads, notify your Department Safety Manager.                            

Biological Indicators

Biological indicator vials contain spores from B. stearothermophilus, a microorganism that is inactivated when exposed to 121.1oC saturated steam for a minimum of 20 minutes. Autoclaves used to treat biological waste will be evaluated with a biological indicator by EHS on a quarterly basis.

Validation Procedure for Autoclave:

EHS will coordinate biological validation testing with laboratory staff.

The indicators will be incubated by EHS for 24 hours at 60°C with a control that has been maintained at room temperature.

Results

If the autoclaved indicator exhibits growth, the validation has failed and will be repeated.

If the second validation indicator fails, EHS will notify the Department Safety Manager and request service on the autoclave.  Autoclave should not be used until service has been conducted and the validation test passes.

Validation tests results are emailed by EHS staff to the appropriate labs and the Department Safety Manager.

EHS maintains documentation of all validation tests.

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Homology Modelling of Protein Steps Tools Software Tutorial PDF PPT Papers

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Homology Modelling of Protein Steps Tools Software Tutorial PDF PPT Papers

What is Homology Modelling?

Homology modelling allows users to safely use rapidly generated in silico protein models in all the contexts where today only experimental structures provide a solid basis: structure-based drug design, analysis of protein function, interactions, antigenic behavior, and rational design of proteins with increased stability or novel functions. In addition, protein modeling is the only way to obtain structural information if experimental techniques fail. Many proteins are simply too large for NMR analysis and cannot be crystallized for X-ray diffraction.

Homology Modelling of Protein Steps Tools Software Tutorial PDF PPT Papers

Among the major approaches to three-dimensional (3D) structure prediction, homology modeling is the easiest one.
In the Homology Modelling, structure of a protein is uniquely determined by its amino acid sequence (Epstain, Goldberger, and Anfinsen, 1963). Knowing the sequence should, at least in theory, suffice to obtain the structure.
2. During evolution, the structure is more stable and changes much slower than the associated sequence, so that similar sequences adopt practically identical structures, and distantly related sequences still fold into similar structures. This relationship was first identified by Chothia and Lesk (1986) and later quantified by Sander and Schneider (1991). Thanks to the exponential growth of the Protein Data Bank (PDB), Rost (1999) could recently derive a precise limit for this rule. As long as the length of two sequences and the percentage of identical residues fall in the region marked as “safe,” the two sequences are practically guaranteed to adopt a similar structure.

Homology Modelling or Protein Modelling Example

Imagine that we want to know the structure of sequence A (150 amino acids long,). We compare sequence A to all the sequences of known structures stored in the PDB (using, for example, BLAST), and luckily find a sequence B (300 amino acids long) containing a region of 150 amino acids that match sequence A with 50% identical residues. As this match (alignment) clearly falls in the safe zone (Fig. 25.1), we can simply take the known structure of sequence B
(the template), cut out the fragment corresponding to the aligned region, mutate those amino acids that differ between sequences A and B, and finally arrive at our model for structure A. Structure A is called the target and is of course not known at the time of modeling.

Homology Modelling of Protein Steps Tools Software Tutorial PDF PPT

Homology Modelling Steps

In practice, homology modeling is a multistep process that can be summarized in seven steps:
1. Template recognition and initial alignment
2. Alignment correction
3. Backbone generation
4. Loop modeling
5. Side-chain modeling
6. Model optimization
7. Model validation

At almost all the steps choices have to be made. The modeler can never be sure to make the best ones, and thus a large part of the modeling process consists of serious thought about how to gamble between multiple seemingly similar choices. A lot of research has been spent on teaching the computer how to make these decisions, so that homology models can be built fully automatically. Currently, this allows modelers to construct models for about 25% of the amino acids in a genome, thereby supplementing the efforts of structural genomics projects.

Homology_Modelling – Protein PPT

homology modeling

Protein Homology modelling steps ppt Structures

Homology Modelling Steps, Homology Modelling Software, Homology Modelling Ppt, Homology Modelling Pdf, Homology Modeling Server, Protein Modelling Bioinformatics, Homology Modeling Tutorial, Homology Modelling Slideshare

Popular Pharma News Blogs – Latest Pharmaceutical Industry News Websites

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Popular Pharma News Blogs - Latest Pharmaceutical Industry News Websites

Pharmacy websites are real matter of concern for information and news. Pharmaceuticals play a vital role in our day-to-day living. And hence their rising costs are destined to be our major concern. If asked to name one thing that affects our life in most phases one would hardly say pharmaceuticals. But wait this is a fact that most of us since our birth depend on pharmaceuticals in one-way or other. Definitely by age our dependence on pharmacy products increases but even teenagers and young ones consume a big percentage of pharmaceutical derivatives.

pharmatimes.com

Blog belong to Covent Garden, London. This blog is all about In-depth news, features and insights for the pharmaceutical and healthcare sectors. Our wide editorial lens delivers sharp, informed and entertaining coverage from every side.

fiercepharma.com

Popular Pharma News Blogs - Latest Pharmaceutical Industry News Websites
Popular Pharma News Blogs – Latest Pharmaceutical Industry News Websites

FiercePharma blog is all about pharma industry news on big pharma, FDA decisions, patents, pharmaceutical marketing, generic drugs, and other pharma news.

rxrights.org

RxRights blog belongs to United States that is dedicated to promoting and protecting American consumer access to sources of safe, affordable prescription drugs.

pharmamkting.blogspot.com

Newtown, PA A blog about pharmaceutical marketing and advertising written by PharmaGuy, a constructive critic of the industry.

pharmaphorum.com

Pharmaphorum is United Kingdom based Pharma Blog with lots of information on Pharma news, views and analysis of healthcare in a rapidly changing world. Not only do we keep you connected with the latest trends in pharma, we can also help you develop and bring to life your own thoughts, ideas and inspirations to enable you and your business to become key pharma influencers.

medadnews-digital.com

You can get pulse of the pharma industry with help from the news posts on this site.

pharmacycheckerblog.com

PharmacyChecker.com publishes profiles, ratings and comparative drug prices of US, Canadian and other online pharmacies. Since 2003, we have provided the American consumer with useful information on how to save money on prescription drugs. In this blog, we endeavor to further support the American consumer by providing clarity to public policy issues affecting drug prices.

pharmalive.com

pharmalive.com is established in 2013, Outcomes LLC provides the $500 billion pharmaceutical industry with need-to-know business information.

“Scientific discoveries are not the same as inventions” #M. Pharmacy Notes IPR Material

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#M. Pharmacy Notes IPR Material

Scientific discoveries are not the same as inventions Do you agree? Substantiate your answer.

Invention makes or develops something that did not exist. Discovery finds real (non-abstract) things that are already exsistant Patentable inventions must — under conventional patent law — be new, useful and involve an ‘inventive step’. In contrast, it is generally accepted that utilizing something that already exists in nature is a ‘discovery’, and is therefore not patentable.

Drawing an appropriate boundary between un-patentable natural phenomena and patentable inventions is crucial in preventing the patent laws from unduly restricting access to fundamental scientific discoveries. Some would argue that, particularly in the U.S., patents are being issued that purport to claim a novel product or process but that, in effect, encompass any practical application of a fundamental biological principle.

#M. Pharmacy Notes IPR Material
Examples include gene patents, which Congress is considering banning, and patents relating to biological correlations and pathways, such as the patents at issue in the headlinegrabbing LabCorp v. Metabolite and Ariad v. Eli Lilly litigations. In view of the mounting concern, it seems likely that government and/or the courts will address the issue, and perhaps substantially shift the boundary.
The question of what should and should not be patentable subject matter has spawned a number of battlegrounds in recent years, setting against each other those in each area supporting patentability, claiming that patents would cause increased innovation and public good, against opponents with views that patentability was being sought only for private good but would do public harm.

Flashpoints have included the patenting of naturally occurring biological material; genetic sequences; stem cells; “traditional knowledge”; programs for computers; business methods.

In March 2010, a federal district court judge in the Southern District of New York ruled that purified DNA sequences and the inventions using them are unpatentable. As has been discussed Judge Sweet relied entirely upon Supreme Court precedent and ignored contrary case law of the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals to conclude that isolated DNA is of the same fundamental quality as natural DNA and is thus unpatentable under section 101 of the Patent Act; and that the method claims of the patents were abstract mental processes that were also unpatentable. His rationale is controversial and his ruling has been appealed to the Federal Circuit.
In the process, different jurisdictions have come to different views as to what should be allowed and what should not.

Types of Patents – All about Patents – Intellectual Property Rights & Regulatory Affairs notes

Patents on business methods have proven to be a particularly controversial type of statutory subject matter. They have been criticized because the patents granted are perceived as being too broad, perhaps due to the difficulty in searching for prior art and recruiting suitably qualified patent examiners who have historically had a science background rather than a business background. Patent applications for business methods are also subject to delays in prosecution at the United States Patent and Trademark Office and other patent office

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Of Human Respiratory Tract

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ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Of Human Respiratory Tract

Anatomy and Physiology Of human respiratory system is a complicated organ system of very close structure– function relationships. The system consisted of two regions: the conducting airway and the respiratory region. The airway is further divided into many folds: nasal cavity and the associated sinuses, and the nasopharynx, oropharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. The respiratory region consists of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY TRACT:

               The respiratory system works with the circulatory system to deliver oxygen from the lungs to the cells and remove carbon dioxide, and return it to the lungs to be exhaled. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air, blood and body tissues is known as respiration. Healthy lungs take in about 1 pint of air about 12–15 times each minute. All of the blood in the body is passed through the lungs every minute. The respiratory tract is divided into two main parts: the upper respiratory tract, consisting of the nose, nasal cavity and the pharynx; and the lower respiratory tract consisting of the larynx, trachea, bronchi and the lungs The trachea, which begins at the edge of the larynx, divides into two bronchi and continues into the lungs. The trachea allows air to pass from the larynx to the bronchi and then to the lungs. The bronchi divide into smaller bronchioles which branch in the lungs forming passageways for air. The terminal parts of the bronchi are the alveoli. The alveoli are the functional units of the lungs and they form the site of gaseous exchange     

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Of Human Respiratory Tract

            The blood barrier between the alveolar space and the pulmonary capillaries is very thin to allow for rapid gas exchange. During inspiration, oxygen diffuses through the alveoli walls and the interstitial space, into the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction during exhalation. Alveoli are small and there are approximately 300 million of them in each lung. Although alveoli are tiny structures, they have a very large surface area in total (~100 m2) for performing efficient gas exchange.

                     The alveoli form a honeycomb of cells around the spiral, cylindrical surface of the alveolar duct. The exposed alveolar surface is normally covered with a surface film of lipoprotein material.

                      There are several types of pulmonary alveolar cells. Type I (or small type A), are non-phagocytic, membranous pneumocytes. These surface-lining epithelial cells are approximately 5 μm in thickness and possess thin squamous cytoplasmic extensions that originate from a central nucleated portion. These portions do not have any organelles and hence they are metabolically dependent on the central portion of the cell. This reduces their ability to repair themselves if damaged. Attached to the basement membrane are the larger alveolar cells (Type II, type B or septal cells). These rounded, granular, epithelial pneumocytes are approximately 10 to 15 μm tick. There are 6 to 7 cells per alveolus and these cells possess great metabolic activity. They are believed to produce the surfactant material that lines the lung and to be essential for alveolar repair after damage from viruses or chemical agents.

             Amongst, the important roles of the lungs, one can cite: (i) supply oxygen, (ii) remove wastes and toxins, and (iii) defend against hostile intruders. The lungs have three dozen distinct types of cells. Some of these cells scavenge foreign matter. Others have cilia that sweep the mucous membranes lining the smallest air passages. Some cells act on blood pressure control, while others spot infection invaders.

 anatomy of lungs            

      The respiratory system is susceptible to a number of diseases, and the lungs are prone to a wide range of disorders caused by genetic factors, infection and pollutants in the air. The most common problems of the respiratory system are:

  • Asthma
  • Bronchiolitis
  • Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
  • Common cold
  • Cough
  • Cystic fibrosis (CF)
  • Lung cancer
  • Pneumonia
  • Pulmonary hypertension

PRINCIPAL MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY DEPOSITION

            The deposition of inhaled particles in the different regions of the respiratory system is very complex, and depends on many factors. Some of the factors influencing respiratory deposition include:

  • Breathing rate
  • Mouth or nose breathing
  • Lung volume
  • Respiration volume
  • Health of the individual
  • Bifurcations in the airways result in a constantly changing hydrodynamic flow field.

Depending on the particle size, airflow, and location in the respiratory system, particle deposition occurs via on of the following principal mechanisms:

Impaction

         Each time the airflow changes due to a bifurcation in the airways, the suspended particles tend to travel along their original path due to inertia and may impact on an airway surface. This mechanism is highly dependent on aerodynamic diameter, since the stopping distance for very small particles is quite low. Impaction occurs mostly in the case of larger particles that are very close to airway walls, near the first airway bifurcations. Therefore, deposition by impaction is greatest in the bronchial region. Impaction accounts for the majority of particle deposition on a mass basis.

 Sedimentation

           Sedimentation is the settling out of particles in the smaller airways of the bronchioles and alveoli, where the air flow is low and airway dimensions are small. The rate of sedimentation is dependent on the terminal settling velocity of the particles, so sedimentation plays a greater role in the deposition of particles with larger aerodynamic diameters. Hygroscopic particles may grow in size as they pass through the warm, humid air passages, thus increasing the probability of deposition by sedimentation.

 Interception

            Interception occurs when a particle contacts an airway surface due to its physical size or shape. Unlike impaction, particles that are deposited by interception do not deviate from their air streamlines. Interception is most likely to occur in small airways or when the air streamline is close to an airway wall. Interception is most significant for fibers, which easily contact airway surfaces do to their length. Furthermore, fibers have small aerodynamic diameters relative to their size, so they can often reach the smallest airways.

 

 

Diffusion

Diffusion is the primary mechanism of deposition for particles less than 0.5 microns in diameter and is governed by geometric rather than aerodynamic size. Diffusion is the net transport of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration due to Brownian motion. Brownian motion is the random wiggling motion of a particle due to the constant bombardment of air molecules. Diffusional deposition occurs mostly when the particles have just entered the nasopharynx, and is also most likely to occur in the smaller airways of the pulmonary (alveolar) region, where air flow is low.

 

 Absorption – bioavailability of drugs

Although inhaled drugs have been used for over 50 years to treat airway disease and are in development or being considered for the treatment of many other lung diseases, insulin is at present time the only one representative inhaled drug on the market for systemic disease. Exubera® (insulin human [rDNA origin] inhalation powder is the first diabetes treatment which can be inhaled. Exubera® helps control high blood sugar, works in adults with type 1 diabetes and with type 2 diabetes as well This therapeutic success has lead a number of other companies to investigate and to advance clinical trials as inhaled formulations for systemic applications with a variety of large molecules (leuprolide, a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) analogue, …). Recent advances in the development of particle technologies and devices now make it possible to formulate, stabilize, and accurately deliver almost any drug to the lungs.

             The pulmonary membrane is naturally permeable to small molecule drugs and to many therapeutic peptides and proteins. The epithelium of the lung, the significant barrier to absorption of inhaled drugs, is thick (50–60 μm) in the trachea, but diminishes in thickness to an extremely thin 0.2 μm in the alveoli. The change in cell types and morphology going from trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles to alveoli is very dramatic. The lungs are for more permeable to macromolecules than any other portal of entry into the body. Some of the most promising therapeutic agents are peptides and proteins, which could be inhaled instead of injected, thereby improving compliance .Particularly, peptides that have been chemically altered to inhibit peptidase enzymes exhibit very high bioavailabilities by the pulmonary route .Indeed, natural mammalian peptides, les than 30 amino acids (somatostatin, vaso active intestinal peptide [VIP], and glucagons), are broken down in the lung by ubiquitous peptidases and have very poor bioavailabilities. Conversely, proteins with molecular weights between 6000 and 50,000 Da are relatively resistant to most peptidases and have good bioavailabilities following inhalation. For larger proteins, the bioavailabilities and absorption mechanisms are not well completely elucidated.

ADVANTAGES OF PULMONARY DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM

 

  1. The ability to nebulize viscous drug formulations for pulmonary delivery, thereby overcoming drug solubility issues with the ability to use lipid, water or lipid/water emulsions as drug carriers.
  2. Ability to nebulize viscous liquids into droplets in the 2-5μm range regardless of the carrier composition solubility which would allow for a wide range of drug formulation options.
  3. Increased drug delivery efficacy due to size-stable aerosol droplets with reduced

hygroscopic growth and evaporative shrinkage.

  1. Liposomal drug formulations remain stable when nebulized.
  2. Ability to nebulize protein-containing solutions.
  3. For hand held inhaler applications, drug does not need to be emulsified in liquefied nebulizing gas to achieve aerosolization.