Clinical Pharmacist Interview Questions PDF for Freshers & Exp – ANSWERS

July 26, 2020September 6, 2019 by Renee

What is Clinical pharmacy?

Clinical pharmacy comprises a set of functions that promote the safe, effective and economic use of medicines for
individual patients.
• The emergence of clinical pharmacy has allowed pharmacists to shift from a product-oriented role towards direct engagement with patients and the problems they encounter
with medicines.
• The practice of clinical pharmacy is generally an essential component of pharmaceutical care.

Explain Pharmaceutical Care & its key elements?

Pharmaceutical care is a co-operative, patient-centred system for achieving specific and positive patient outcomes from the responsible provision of medicines.
The three key elements of the care process are patient assessment, determining the care plan and evaluating the outcome.The ability to consult with patients is a key process in the delivery of pharmaceutical care and requires regular review and development regardless
of experience.

Why clinical pharmacy is incorporated?

The clinical pharmacy process has been incorporated into a professional development framework that can be used to enhance skills and knowledge.

Mnemonics used in the pharmacy consultation process
WWHAM
Who is it for?
What are the symptoms?
How long has it been going on?
Action taken?
Medicines taken?
AS METTHOD
Age of the patient?
Self or for someone else?
Medicines being taken?

Exactly what do you mean (by the symptom)?
Time and duration of the symptom
Taken any action (medicine or seen the doctor)?
History of any disease?
Other symptoms?
Doing anything to alleviate or worsen the symptom?
ENCORE
Evaluate the symptom, its onset, recurrence and duration.
No medication is always an option.
Care when dealing with specific patient groups, notably the elderly, the young, nursing mothers, pregnant women, those receiving specific medication such as methotrexate and anticoagulants, and those with particular disease, for example, renal impairment.
Observe the patient for signs of systemic disturbance and ask about presence of fever, loss of weight and any accompanying physiological disturbance.
Refer when in doubt.
Explain any course of action recommended.

What are the effective communication behaviours ?

For effective consultation, the practitioner also needs to draw upon a range of communication behaviours

Consultation behaviours
Active listening
Appropriate use of open and closed questions
Respect patient
Avoid jargon
Demonstrate empathy
Deal sensitively with potentially embarrassing or sensitive issues

Uterus Function Anatomy Location Pictures UTERUS @ Child Pregnancy Menopause

July 26, 2020September 5, 2019 by Renee

In this article we provide vital information about Uterus. If you want to know how your uterus is then this is the place to read. You van see Uterus Function Anatomy Location Pictures of UTERUS. Uterus in Child, Uterus at Menopause and Uterus at Pregnancy are given clearly.

Uterus Anatomy Pictures:

Uterus in the Child:

The fundus and body of the uterus remain small until puberty, when they enlarge greatly in response to the estrogens secreted by the ovaries.

Uterus after Menopause:

After menopause, the uterus atrophies and becomes smaller and less vascular. These changes occur because the ovaries no longer produce estrogens and progesterone.

Uterus in Pregnancy:

During pregnancy, the uterus becomes greatly enlarged as a result of the increasing production of estrogens and progesterone, first by the corpus luteum of the ovary and later by the placenta. At first, it remains as a pelvic organ, but by the third month the fundus rises out of the pelvis, and by the ninth month it has reached the xiphoid process. The increase in size is largely a result of hypertrophy of the smooth muscle fibers of the myometrium, although some hyperplasia takes place. Role of the Uterus in Labor Labor, or parturition, is the series of processes by which the baby, the fetal membranes, and the placenta are expelled from the genital tract of the mother. Normally, this process takes place at the end of the 10th lunar month, at which time the pregnancy is said to be at term. The cause of the onset of labor is not definitely known. By the end of pregnancy, the contractility of the uterus has been fully developed in response to estrogen, and it is particularly sensitive to the actions of oxytocin at this time. It is possible that the onset of labor is triggered by the sudden withdrawal of progesterone. Once the presenting part (usually the fetal head) starts to stretch the cervix, it is thought that a nervous reflex mechanism is initiated and increases the force of the contractions of the uterine body. The uterine muscular activity is largely independent of the extrinsic innervation. In women in labor, spinal anesthesia does not interfere with the normal uterine contractions. Severe emotional

Uterus Location:

Oxytocin: Functions Drugs Side Effects Contraindications Pharmacokinetics Dynamics

July 26, 2020September 2, 2019 by Renee

Oxytocin is a hormone, predominately belonging to mammalian family; it is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland. After its release in the blood stream it cannot re-enter the brain due to the presence of blood brain barrier .Oxytocin is a hormone that has both peripheral and central actions. y are synthesized in the magnocellular neurons present in the supra–optic and Para –ventricular nucleus present in the hypothalamus. The universally known functions would include its role at the time of labour and ejection of milk. The functions which remain partially unknown are in erectile responses, ejaculation, bonding, and feeling of love and maintenance of eye contact during a conversation.

Functions and roles of Oxytocin:

Oxytocin plays a key role in establishing trust , falling in love , parturition , milk ejection, mother – child bond , erection and ejaculatory response in males. Oxytocin insuffiency is leads to increased stress and sleep disturbances. The solution to the above mentioned problem lies in creating a drug which can mimic the functional properties of Oxytocin, which was achieved. Oxytocin has been widely used in the field of gynaecology to induce labour. It is also administered to patients i.e. mothers who are unable to produce milk after parturition. The invention of Oxytocin nasal sprays is not unknown. Recommended doses when administered to autism patients are proven to increase the sense of trust at the time of communication.

Mechanism of OXYTOCIN

Oxytocin is a naturally occurring nonapeptide hormone which acts through a G-protein coupled cell surface receptor to stimulate contractions of the uterus. A synthetic version of this hormone is used to induce contractions of the uterus which are indistinguishable from spontaneous labour.

Pharmacokinetics

Oxytocin is administered as a slow intravenous infusion (to induce or augment labour), or as a single intramuscular or intravenous injection to help prevent and treat uterine atony and postpartum haemorrhage. In pregnant women, oxytocin is metabolised very quickly in the maternal circulation by an aminopeptidase enzyme which cleaves the protein leaving it without biological function. This oxytocinase activity is also seen within the placenta and uterine tissue, and activity increases throughout pregnancy where at term the half -life of oxytocin is between 2 and 20 minutes.

Adverse effects

The main side effects are related to overstimulation of the uterus which can compromise the placental blood supply and fetal well-being, and can also contribute to rupture of the uterus especially in women who have had a previous caesarean delivery. Oxytocin is similar in structure to Vasopressin which is also produced by the posterior pituitary, and prolonged administration with intravenous fluids may lead to fluid overload, pulmonary oedema and water intoxication.

Oxytocin Molecular Formula

It has a molecular formula of C43H66N12O12S 2.

Oxytocin drugs:

Oxytocin is also known as Pitocin, Syntocinon, Ocytocin, Endopituitrina, Oxitocina, Oxytocine, Oxytocinum, Oxytocic hormone and Orasthin.

It has a molecular formula of C43H66N12O12S 2. They are commercially available as intravenous and intramuscular injections , nasal sprays and sublingual tablets .The commonly used Anirudha kabilan /J. Pharm. Sci. & Res. Vol. 6(4), 2014, 220-223 221 drug types are pitocin and syntocinon, the chemical resemblance to Oxytocin makes them an ideal drug of choice for various cases for example at time if parturition . Pitocin is composed of oxtocic acid/ml along with chlorobutanol , a chloroform derivative. However medical supervision is mandatory to rule out the onset of complications (20,31). The general uses of these Oxytocin drugs would include induction of labour .Under appropriate level , at the time delivery, Oxytocin binds to the receptors present in the myometrium , activates the pathway of hydrolysis of phoshotidyl inositol and diacyl glycerol, there by activating the same. This activation causes the release of intracellular Ca+ which causes contraction of the uterus .In conditions associated with low level of Oxytocin production this process is carried out by Oxytocin drugs (29, 27) Incase of people suffering from autism, administration of pitocin is said to reduce repetitive behaviour and also enhances speech. Few researches have proved the improvement of trust in people affected by autism when they were given pitocin nasal sprays. It also enhances eye to eye contact in these individuals. Pitcoin helps in social interaction in people who suffer from schizophrenia . So pitocin may not only combat hallucinogens and psychosis, but also make human interaction easier . Being a new field if research there is not enough evidence to prove the role pitocin in both autism and schizophrenia. Further, they are also used to cure problems in erectile responses, ejaculation, depression, anxiety, and stress management

Dosage of Oxytocin:

10 units by intravenous route or 20-40 mUnit/min by Intramuscular route are injected for post partum haemorrhage. 0.5-1 mUnit/min by intravenous route for the induction of labour.10-20 mUnit/min is administered along with other drugs for termination of pregnancy.

Pharmacodynamics

Uterine contractions are seen after 3-5 minutes and approx 1 minute of aministration through intramuscular and intravenous routes respectively. A steady state of the drug is reached after 40 mins of parenteral route of administration. It is distributed throughout extracellular fluid compartment of the mother; small amounts may cross the placental barrier and reach foetus. Metabolism takes place rapidly via the liver and plasma by the enzyme oxytocinase a few steps of metabolism also takes place via mammary gland. It has a half-life of 1-5 minute. Kidney and liver help in the elimination of Oxytocin drugs( 9) unchanged form of this drug is rarely excreted in urine (30). Overdose can cause titanic uterine contractions, impaired blood flow to the uterus, uterine ruptures, seizures and amniotic fluid embolism contractions, impaired blood flow to the uterus, uterine ruptures, seizures and amniotic fluid embolism.

Contraindications:

Significant cephalopelvic disproportion
Unfavourable foetal positions
Obstetric emergencies which favours surgery
Hyperactive or hypertonic uterus
When vaginal delivery is contraindicated,
Anaphylactic patients, Foetal distress
Polyhydramnios
Partial placenta pervia
Elective labour induction

Side effects

 Nausea or vomiting
 Memory problems or confusion
 Runny nose, sore throat, or coughing
 severe headaches
 hallucinations
 vomiting
 confusion
 Seizures and severe hypertension

Clinical Scenario 1

Which of the following abnormalities of labor is associated with a significantly increased incidence of neonatal
morbidity?
a. Prolonged latent phase
b. Protracted descent
c. Secondary arrest of dilation
d. Protracted active-phase dilation
Answer: c (Secondary arrest of dilation)
Explanation:
Three significant advances in the treatment of uterine dysfunction have reduced the risk of perinatal morbidity (PNM) and
mortality: (1) the avoidance of undue prolongation of labor, (2) the use of intravenous oxytocin in the treatment of some patterns
of uterine dysfunction, and (3) the liberal use of cesarean section (rather than midforceps) to affect delivery when oxytocin fails.

Clinical Scenario 2

Management of obstructed labor includes all, except:
[AIIMS May 2004]
a. IV fluids
b. Oxytocin use
c. Antibiotics
d. Cesarean section
Answer: b (Oxytocin use)
Explanation:
Two main principles in management of obstructed labor are:
1. Never wait and watch.
2. Never use oxytocin.
In patients of obstructed labor, the uterine contractions (power) are always adequate.
There is a problem with the passage or the passenger.
By increasing the power (by giving oxytocin) we are increasing the risk of rupture uterus.
It is like flogging a dead horse. Uterus is already contracting, and there is no point in increasing the contractions further in
a case of obstructed labor.
The patient should be given IV fluids to correct the dehydration and ketoacidosis, which usually develops due to prolonged
labor. Patient should be given antibiotics to prevent infection, and then steps should be taken to immediately relieve
the obstruction either by instrumental deliver or by LSCS. LSCS may have to be done even if the baby is dead and if vaginal
delivery is not possible, or else rupture uterus will occur.
NOTE: In cases of prolonged labor where there are hypotonic uterine contractions, oxytocin is justified.

Storage Temperature on Label – Freeze Cold Cool Dry Label Storage Temperature

July 26, 2020July 29, 2019 by Renee

Hello buddies. Pharmawiki.in here with another amazing and most important article “Storage Temperature on Label – Freeze Cold Cool Dry Label Storage Temperature” for all the pharma students pharmacists and any one who is into pharmaceutical field. This article not only helps pharma people but also the general public as we see these terms daily on all the pharmaceutical products we use. Specifically today we are talking about storage temperature on the label. These temperatures and definitions will also help you in many competitive and entrance examinations like GPAT Pharmacist exam, Drug Inspector examination. Then why delay just jump into the points straight away.

Storage Temperature and Humidity

Specific directions are stated in some monographs with respect to the temperatures and humidity at which official articles shall be stored and distributed (including the shipment of articles to the consumer) when stability data indicate that storage and distribution at a lower or a higher temperature and a higher humidity produce undesirable results. Such directions apply except where the label on an article states a different storage temperature on the basis of stability studies of that particular formulation. Where no specific storage directions or limitations are provided in the individual monograph, but the label of an article states a storage temperature that is based on stability studies of that particular formulation, such labeled storage directions apply. ) The conditions are defined by the following terms.

Freezer

“Freezer” indicates a place in which the temperature is maintained thermostatically between −25° and −10° (−13° and 14°F).

Cold

Any temperature not exceeding 8° (46°F) is “cold.” A “refrigerator” is a cold place in which the temperature is maintained thermostatically between 2° and 8° (36° and 46°F).

Cool

Any temperature between 8° and 15° (46° and 59°F) is “cool.” An article for which storage in a cool place is directed may, alternatively, be stored and distributed in a refrigerator, unless otherwise specified by
the individual monograph.

Controlled Cold Temperature

“Controlled cold temperature” is defined as temperature maintained thermostatically between 2° and 8° (36° and 46°F), that allows for excursions in temperature between 0° and 15° (32° and 59°F) that may be experienced during storage, shipping, and distribution such that the allowable calculated mean kinetic temperature is not more than 8° (46°F). Transient spikes up to 25° (77°F) may be permitted if the manufacturer so instructs and provided that such spikes do not exceed 24 hours unless supported by stability data or the manufacturer instructs otherwise.

Room Temperature

“Room temperature” indicates the temperature prevailing in a working area.

Controlled Room Temperature

“Controlled room temperature” indicates a temperature maintained thermostatically that encompasses the usual and customary working environment of 20° to 25° (68° to 77°F); that results in a mean kinetic temperature calculated to be not more than 25°; and that allows for excursions between 15° and 30° (59° and 86°F) that are experienced in pharmacies, hospitals, and warehouses. Provided the mean kinetic temperature remains in the allowed range, transient spikes up to 40° are permitted as long as they do not exceed 24 hours. Spikes above 40° may be permitted if the manufacturer so instructs. Articles may be labeled for storage at “controlled room temperature” or at “up to 25°”, or USP Pharmacists’ Pharmacopeia

General Notices other wording based on the same mean kinetic temperature. The mean kinetic temperature is a calculated value that may be used as an isothermal storage temperature that simulates the nonisothermal effects of storage temperature variations. An article for which storage at controlled room temperature is directed may, alternatively, be stored and distributed in a cool place, unless otherwise specified in the individual monograph or on the label.

Warm

Any temperature between 30° and 40° (86° and 104°F) is “warm.”

Excessive Heat

“Excessive heat” means any temperature above 40° (104°F).

Protection From Freezing

Where, in addition to the risk of breakage of the container, freezing subjects an article to loss of strength or potency, or to destructive alteration of its characteristics, the container label bears an appropriate instruction to protect the article from freezing.

Dry Place

The term “dry place” denotes a place that does not exceed 40% average relative humidity at Controlled Room Temperature or the equivalent water vapor pressure at other temperatures. The determination may be made by direct measurement at the place or may be based on reported climatic conditions. Determination is based on not less than 12 equally spaced measurements that encompass either a season, a year, or, where recorded data demonstrate, the storage period of the article. There may be values of up to 45% relative humidity provided that the average value is 40% relative humidity. Storage in a container validated to protect the article from moisture vapor, including storage in bulk, is considered storage in a dry place.

I hope this Storage Temperature on Label – Freeze Cold Cool Dry Label Storage Temperature article helped you. You need to know the definitions of these exactly to know where to store your medicines.

HOW TO FILL AN OMR ANSWER SHEET – UPSC APPSC GPAT Exams

July 26, 2020July 24, 2019 by Renee

Tod we will discuss HOW TO FILL AN OMR ANSWER SHEET in the recent examinations. All the public service commissions and other government private and entrance examination are likely to follow the same pattern of OMR marking answering system for the evaluation. I think this is the best evaluation and one need to be very careful while filling up the form. So, We thought to publish an article on your favorite pharmawiki.in to help all the students and other aspirants to have a safe practice while attempting your examinations.

HOW TO FILL AN OMR ANSWER SHEET – UPSC APPSC GPAT Exams

First let us start with a picture of Sample OMR sheet. Have a look at it keenly.

Sample OMR Sheet

INSTRUCTIONS for filling OMR Sheet

Fill boxes in BLUE/BLACK ball point pen only.

Darken the circles by BLUE/BLACK ball point pen only.

Do not write anything else on this OMR sheet.

Darken the circles only like this.

Roll Number

EXAMPLE:
IF YOUR ROLL NO IS “06393”
YOU MUST DARKEN AS SHOWN BELOW

SET CODE IS “D”

IF YOUR QUESTION SET CODE IS “D”
YOU MUST DARKEN AS SHOWN BELOW

DATE OF BIRTH

IF YOUR DATE OF BIRTH IS 06/05/1997
YOU MUST DARKEN AS SHOWN BELOW

This is another important section for you to concentrate and do the work. You need to fill the bubble with right date of birth if not you may be out as it can be a reason for your disqualification in the examination you are giving right now for your better career prospects. So be careful while filling your entire OMR sheet.

IMPORTANT POINTS :
1. “SET CODE” -AS MENTIONED IN THE QUESTION PAPER.
2. 5 (FIVE) DIGIT WRITTEN ROLL NUMBER -AS MENTIONED IN PERFORMANCE -CUM-IDENTITY CARD
3. DATE OF BIRTH – As mentioned in the application form

I hope our article “HOW TO FILL AN OMR ANSWER SHEET – UPSC APPSC GPAT Exams” helped you to a small extent before you take up any offline competitive exams. This is a small guide to the instructions for filling the omr sheet without any mistake as our exams are very important to us. All the best my friends and I wish you all the very best for all your future endeavors. May God Bless.

NAPLEX FPGEE OSPAP KAPS PEBC Pharmacist Exam Quick Revision #1 Pharmacology Guide

July 26, 2020July 22, 2019 by Renee

Here Pharmawiki is presenting last day revision for all the aspirants of different pharmacist examinations like NAPLEX FPGEE OSPAP KAPS PEBC Pharmacist Exam. You can consider it as a Quick Revision on Pharmacology subject which will help you to qualify and score well in these examinations. This tiny Guide will surely help you to assess your exam preparation level.

NAPLEX FPGEE OSPAP KAPS PEBC Exam Quick Revision

1. venous ulcer treatment >
exclude arteriopathy (eg ABPI), control
oedema, prevent infection, compression bandaging.
2. Cushings – Diagnosis: 24hr urinary free cortisol. Addisons >
short synacthen.
3. Rash on buttocks – Dermatitis herpetiformis (coeliac dx).
4. AF with TIA >
Warfarin. Just TIA’s with no AF >
Aspirin
5. Herpes encephalitis >
temporal lobe calicification OR temporoparietal
attentuation – subacute onset i.e. Several days.
6. Obese woman, papilloedema/headache >
Benign Intercanial
Hypertention.
7. Drug induced pneumonitis >
methotrexate or amiodarone.
8. chest discomfort and dysphagia >
achalasia.
9. foreign travel, macpap rash/flu like illnes >
HIV acute.
10. cause of gout >
dec urinary excretion.
11. bullae on hands and fragule SKIN torn by minor trauma >
porphyria
cutanea tarda.
12. Splenectomy >
need pneumococcal vaccine AT LEAST 2 weeks preop
and for life.
13. primary hrperparathyroidism >
high Ca, normal/low PO4, normal/high
PTH (in elderly).
14. middle aged man with KNEE arthritis >
gonococcal sepsis (older
people >
Staph).
15. sarcoidosis, erythema nodosum, arthropathy >
Loffgrens syndrome
benign, no Rx needed.
16. TREMOR postural,slow progression,titubation, relieved by OH>
benign
essential TREMOR AutDom. (MS – titbation, PD – no titubation)
17. electrolytes disturbance causing confusion – low/high Na.

FPGEE | National Association of Boards of Pharmacy

18. contraindications lung Surgery >
FEV dec bp 130/90, Ace inhibitors (if
proteinuria analgesic induced headache.
21. 1.5 cm difference btwn kidneys >
Renal artery stenosis >
Magnetic
resonance angiogram.
22. temporal tenderness>
temporal arteritis >
steroids > 90% ischaemic
neuropathy, 10% retinal art occlusion.
23. severe retroorbital, daily headache, lacrimation >
cluster headache.
24. pemphigus – involves mouth (mucus membranes), pemphigoid – less
serious NOT mucosa.
25. diagnosis of polyuria >
water deprivation test, then DDAVP.
26. insulinoma >
24 hr supervised fasting hypoglycaemia.
27. Diabetes Random >7 or if >6 OGTT (75g) >
>11.1 also seen in HCT.
28. causes of villous atrophy: coeliac (lymphocytic infiltrate), Whipples , dec
Ig, lymphoma, trop sprue (rx tetracycline).
29. diarrhoea, bronchospasm, flushing, tricuspid stenosis >
gut carcinoid c
liver mets.
3/5/2017 MRCP part 1
https://www.facebook.com/groups/51506029930/permalink/10155082909759931/ 2/5
30. hepatitis B with general deterioration >
hepaocellular carcinoma.
31. albumin normal, total protein high >
myeloma (hypercalcaemia,
electrophoresis).
32. HBSag positive, HB DNA not detectable >
chornic carier.
33. Inf MI, artery invlived >
Right coronary artert.

NAPLEX Exam guide

34. Aut dom conditions: Achondroplasia, Ehler Danlos, FAP, FAMILIAL
hyperchol,Gilberts, Huntington’s, Marfans’s, NFT I/II, Most porphyrias,
tuberous sclerosis, vWD, PeutzJeghers.
35. X linked: Beck/Duch musc dyst, alports, Fragile X, G6PD, Haemophilia
A/B.
36. Loud S1: MS, hyperdynamic, short PR. Soft S1: immobile MS, MR.
37. Loud S2: hypertension, AS. Fixed split: ASD. Opening snap: MOBILE
MS, severe near S2.
38. HOCM/MVP inc
by standing, dec by squating (inc all others). HOCM
inc by valsalva, decs all others. Sudden death athlete, FH, Rx.
Amiodarone, ICD.
39. MVP sudden worsening post MI. Harsh systolic murmur radites to
axilla.
40. Dilated Cardiomyopathy: OH, bp, thiamine/selenium deficiency, MD,
cocksackie/HIV, preg, doxorubicin, infiltration (HCT, sarcoid), tachycardia.
41. Restrictive Cardiomyopathy: sclerodermma, amyloid, sarcoid, HCT,
glycogen storage, Gauchers, fibrosis, hypereosinophilia Lofflers,
caracinoid, malignancy, radiotherapy, toxins.
42. Tumor compressing Respiratory tract >
investigation: flow volume
loop.
43. Guillan Barre syndrome: check VITAL CAPACITY.
44. Horners – sweating lost in upper face only – lesion proximal to common
carotid artery.
45. Internuclear opthalmoplegia: medial longitudinal fasciculus connects
CN nucleus 34.
Ipsilateral adduction palsy, contralateral nystagmus. Aide
memoire (TRIES TO YANK THE ipsilateral BAD eye ACROSS THE nose ).
Convergence retraction nystagmus, but convergence reflex is normal.
Causes: MS, SLE, Miller fisher, overdose(barb, phenytoin, TCA), Wernicke.
46. Progressive Supranuclear palsy: Steel Richardson. Absent voluntary
downward gaze, normal dolls eye . i.e. Occulomotor nuclei intact,
supranuclear Pathology .

The Knowledge Assessment of Pharmaceutical Sciences (KAPS) Exam

47. Perinauds syndrome: dorsal midbrain syndrome, damaged midrain and
superior colliculus: impaired upgaze (cf PSNP), lid retraction, convergence
preserved. Causes: pineal tumor, stroke, hydrocephalus, MS.
48. demetia, gait abnormaily, urinary incontinence. Absent papilloedema>
Normal pressure hydrocephalus.
49. acute red eye >
acute closed angle glaucoma >> less common (ant
uveitis, scleritis, episcleritis, subconjuntival haemmorrhage).
50. wheeles, URTICARIA , drug induced >
aspirin.
3/5/2017 MRCP part 1
https://www.facebook.com/groups/51506029930/permalink/10155082909759931/ 3/5
51. sweats and weight gain >
insulinoma.
52. diagnostic test for asthma >
morning dip in PEFR >20%.
53. Causes of SIADH : chest/cerebral/pancreas Pathology , porphyria,
malignancy, Drugs (carbamazepine, chlorpropamide, clofibrate,
atipsychotics, NSAIDs, rifampicin, opiates)
54. Causes of Diabetes Insipidus: Cranial: tumor, infiltration, trauma
Nephrogenic: Lithium, amphoteracin, domeclocycline, prologed
hypercalcaemia/hypornatraemia, FAMILIAL X linked type
55. bisphosphonates:inhibit osteoclast activity, prevent steroid incduced
osteoperosis (vitamin D also).
56.returned from airline flight, TIA>
paradoxical embolus do TOE.
57. alcoholic, given glucose develops nystagmus >
B1 deficiency
(wernickes). Confabulation>
korsakoff.
58. monoartropathy
with thiazide >
gout (neg birefringence). NO
ALLOPURINOL for acute.
59. painful 3rd nerve palsy >
posterior communicating artery aneurysm till
proven otherwise
60 late complication of scleroderma >
pumonaryhypertention plus/minus
fibrosis.
61. causes of erythema mutliforme: lamotrigine
62. vomiting, abdominal pain, hypothyroidism >
Addisonian crisis (TFT
typically abnormal in this setting DO NOT give thyroxine).
63. mouth/genital ulcers and oligarthritis >
behcets (also eye /SKIN
lesions, DVT)
64. mixed drug overdose most important step >
Nacetylcysteine (time
dependent prognosis)
65. cavernous sinus syndrome 3rd
nerve palsy, proptosis, periorbital
swlling, conj injectn
66. asymetric parkinsons >
likely to be idiopathic
67. Obese, NIDDM female with abnormal LFT’s >
NASH (nonalcoholic
steatotic hepatitis)
68. fluctuating level of conciousness in elderly plus/minus deterioration >
chronic subdural. Can last even longer than 6 months
69. Sensitivity >
TP/(TP plus FN) e.g. For SLE ANA
highly sens,
dsDNA:highly specific
70. RR is 8%. NNT is >
100/8 >
50/4 >
25/2 >
13.5

Australian Pharmacy Council

71. ipsilateral ataxia, Horners, contralateral loss pain/temp >
PICA stroke
(lateral medulary syndrome of Wallenburg)
72. renal stones (80% calcium, 10% uric acid, 5% ammonium (proteus),
3% other). Uric acid and cyteine stone are radioluscent.
73. hyperprolactinaemia (allactorrohea, amenorrohea, low FSH/LH) >
Da
antags (metoclopramide, chlorpromazine, cimetidine NOT TCA’s),
pregnancy, PCOS, pit tumor/microadenoma, stress.
74. Distal, asymetric arthropathy >
PSORIASIS
3/5/2017 MRCP part 1
https://www.facebook.com/groups/51506029930/permalink/10155082909759931/ 4/5
75. episodic headache with tachycardia >
phaeochromocytoma
76. very raised WCC >
ALWAYS think of leukaemia.

OSPAP qualification

77. Diagnosis of CLL >
immunophenotyping NOT cytogenetics, NOT
bone marrow
78. Prognostic factors for AML >
bm karyotype (good/poor/standard) >>
WCC at diagnosis.
79. pancytopenia with raised MCV >
check B12/folate first (other causes
possble, but do this FIRST). Often associayed with phenytoin use >
decreased folate
80. miscariage, DVT, stroke >
LUPUS anticoagulant >
lifelong
anticoagulation
81. Hb elevated, dec ESR >
polycythaemua (2ndry if paO2 low)
82. anosmia, delayed puberty >
Kallmans syndrome (hypogonadotrophic
hypogonadism)
83. diag of PKD >
renal US even if think anorexia nervosa
85. commonest finding in G6PD hamolysis >
haumoglobinuria
86. mitral stenosis: loud S1 (soft s1 if severe), opening snap.. Immobile
valve >
no snap.

PEBC Guide to Pharmacist

87. Flank pain, urinalysis:blood, protein >
renal vein thrombosis. Causes:
nephrotic syndrome, RCC, amyloid, acute pyelonephritis, SLE
(atiphospholipid syndrome which is recurrent thrombosis, fetal loss, dec plt.
Usual cause of cns manifestations assoc with LUPUS ancoagulant,
anticardiolipin ab)
88. anaemia in the elderly assume GI malignancy
89. hypothermia, acute renal failure >
rhabdomyolysis (collapse assumed)
90. pain, numbness lateral upper thigh >
meralgia paraesthesia (lat
cutaneous nerve compression usally by by ing ligament)
91. diagnosis of haemochromatosis: screen with Ferritin, confirm by
tranferrin saturation, genotyping. If nondiagnostic do liver biopsy 0.3%
mortality
92. 40 mg hidrocortisone divided doses (bd) >
10 mg prednisolone (ie.
Prednislone is x4 stronger)
93. BTS: TB guidlines – close contacts >
Heaf test >
positive CXR,
negative >
repeat Heaf in 6 weeks. Isolation not required.
94. Diptheria >
exudative pharyngitis, lymphadenopathy, cardio and neuro
toxicity.
95. Indurated plaques on cheeks, scarring alopecia, hyperkeratosis over
hair follicles >>
Discoid LUPUS
96. wt loss, malabsoption, inc ALP >
pancreatic cancer
97. foreign travel, tender RUQ, raised ALP >
liver abscess do U/S
98. wt loss, anaemia (macro/micro), no obvious cause >
coeliac (diarrhoea
does NOT have to be present)
99. haematuria, proteinuria, best investigation >
if glomerulonephritis
suspected >
renal biopsy

100. Acromegaly – Diagnosis: OGTT followed by GH conc.
101. Malaria, incubation within 3/12. can be relapsing /remitting. Vivax and
Ovale (West Africa) longer imcubation.
102. Fever, lymphadenopathy, lymphocytosis, pharygitis >
EBV >
heterophile antibodies
103. GI bleed after endovascular AAA Surgery >
aortoenteric fistula

LABELING -Pharmaceutical Labeling Requirements Theory PPT PDF

July 26, 2020July 17, 2019 by Renee

Labeling:

The term “labeling” designates all labels and other written, printed, or graphic matter upon an immediate container of an article or upon, or in, any package or wrapper in which it is enclosed, except any outer shipping container.

Labeling?

The term “label” designates that part of the labeling upon the immediate container. A shipping container containing a single article, unless such container is also essentially the immediate container or the outside of the consumer package, is labeled with a minimum of product identification (except for controlled articles), lot number, expiration date, and conditions for storage and distribution. Articles in these compendia are subject to compliance with such labeling requirements as may be promulgated by governmental bodies in addition to the compendial requirements set forth for the articles.

Label: Amount of Ingredient Per Dosage Unit:

The strength of a drug product is expressed on the container label in terms of micrograms or milligrams or grams or percentage of the therapeutically active moiety or drug substance, whichever form is used in the title, unless otherwise indicated in an individual monograph. Both the active moiety and drug substance names and their equivalent amounts are then provided in the labeling. Official articles in capsule, tablet, or other unit dosage form shall be labeled to express the quantity of each active ingredient or recognized nutrient contained in each such unit; except that, in the case of unit-dose oral solutions or suspensions, whether supplied as liquid preparations or as liquid preparations that are constituted from solids upon addition of a designated volume of a specific diluent, the label shall express the quantity of each active ingredient or recognized nutrient delivered under the conditions prescribed in Deliverable Volume 〈698〉. Official drug products not in unit dosage form shall be labeled to express the quantity of each active ingredient in each milliliter or in each gram, or to express the percentage of each such ingredient (see 8.140., Percentage Concentrations), except that oral liquids or solids intended to be constituted to yield oral liquids may, alternatively, be labeled in terms of each 5-mL portion of the liquid or resulting liquid. Unless otherwise indicated in a monograph or chapter, such declarations of strength or quantity shall be stated only in metric units.

Labeling: Use of Leading and Terminal Zeros

To help minimize the possibility of errors in the dispensing and administration of drugs, the quantity of active ingredient when expressed in whole numbers shall be shown without a decimal point that is followed by a terminal zero (e.g., express as 4 mg [not 4.0 mg]). The quantity of active ingredient when expressed as a decimal number smaller than 1 shall be shown with a zero preceding the decimal point (e.g., express as 0.2 mg [not .2 mg]).

Labeling of Salts of Drugs

It is an established principle that official articles shall have only one official title. For purposes of saving space on labels, and because chemical symbols for the most common inorganic salts of drugs are well known to practitioners as synonymous with the written forms, the following alternatives are permitted in labeling official articles that are salts: HCl for hydrochloride; HBr for hydrobromide; Na for sodium; and K for potassium. The symbols Na and K are intended for use in abbreviating names of the salts of organic acids, but these symbols are not used where the word Sodium or Potassium appears at the beginning of an official title (e.g., Phenobarbital Na is acceptable, but Na Salicylate is not to be written).

Labeling Vitamin-Containing Products

The vitamin content of an official drug product shall be stated on the label in metric units per dosage unit. The amounts of vitamins A, D, and E may be stated also in USP Units. Quantities of vitamin A declared in metric units refer to the equivalent amounts of retinol (vitamin A alcohol). The label of a nutritional supplement shall bear an identifying lot number, control number, or batch number. 10.40.50. Labeling Botanical-Containing Products The label of an herb or other botanical intended for use as a dietary supplement bears the statement, “If you are pregnant or nursing a baby, seek the advice of a health professional before using this

Labeling Parenteral and Topical Preparations

The label of a preparation intended for parenteral or topical use states the names of all added substances (see 5.20., Added Substances, Excipients, and Ingredients and see Labeling under Injections 〈1〉), and, in the case of parenteral preparations, also their amounts or proportions, except that for substances added for adjustment of pH or to achieve isotonicity, the label may indicate only their presence and the reason for their addition.

Labeling Electrolytes:

The concentration and dosage of electrolytes for replacement therapy (e.g., sodium chloride or potassium chloride) shall be stated on the label in milliequivalents (mEq). The label of the product shall indicate also the quantity of ingredient(s) in terms of weight or percentage concentration.

Labeling Alcohol:

The content of alcohol in a liquid preparation shall be stated on the label as a percentage (v/v) of C2H5OH.

Symbols Commonly Employed for SI Metric Unit

Symbols commonly employed for SI metric units and other units
are as follows:
Bq = becquerel dL = deciliter
kBq = kilobecquerel L = liter
MBq = megabecquerel mL = milliliterc
GBq = gigabecquerel μL = microliter
Ci = curie Eq = gram-equivalent weight
mCi = millicurie mEq = milliequivalent
μCi = microcurie mol = gram-molecular weight (mole)
nCi = nanocurie Da = dalton (relative molecular mass)
Gy = gray mmol = millimole
mGy = milligray Osmol = osmole
m = meter mOsmol = milliosmole
dm = decimeter Hz = hertz
cm = centimeter kHz = kilohertz
mm = millimeter MHz = megahertz
μm = micrometer (0.001mm) V = volts
nm = nanometera MeV = million electron volts
kg = kilogram keV = kilo-electron volt
g = gram mV = millivolt
mg = milligram psi = pounds per square inch
μg; mcg = microgramb Pa = pascal
ng = nanogram kPa = kilopascal
pg = pictogram g = gravity (in centrifugation)
fg = femtogram
a Previously the symbol mμ (for millimicron) was used.
b One milliliter (mL) is used herein as the equivalent of one cubic centimeter (cc).
c The symbol μg is used in the USP and NF to represent micrograms, but micrograms
may be represented as “mcg” for labeling and prescribing purposes. The term
“gamma,” symbolized by γ, frequently is used to represent micrograms in biochemical
literature

Pharmacology MCQ for NEET PG GPAT PHARMACIST Nursing Questions with Answers pdf Book

July 26, 2020July 15, 2019 by Renee

Today Pharmawiki is here with very important 40+ Pharmacology multiple choice questions along with answers. These are published especially for all our pharmacy students who are ready to take up different competitive exams like NEET PG GPAT PHARMACIST qualifying examinations. These questions are also very helpful to all the students and professionals of Nursing to take up different examinations for their career growth. This article specifically provides questions with answers pdf Book at the end for our readers convenience. You can click on the right side and download the entire copy to study easily.

Pharmacology MCQ for Anti Cancer Chemotherapy Drugs

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS. AGENTS FOR CHEMOTHERAPY OF CANCER

All of the following antiviral drugs are the analogs of nucleosides, EXCEPT:

a) Acyclovir

b) Zidovudine

c) Saquinavir

d) Didanozine

Tick the drug, a derivative of adamantane:

a) Didanozine

b) Rimantadine

c) Gancyclovir

d) Foscarnet

Tick the drug, a derivative of pyrophosphate:

a) Foscarnet

b) Zidovudine

c) Vidarabine

d) Acyclovir

Tick the drug, inhibiting viral DNA synthesis:

a) Interferon

b) Saquinavir

c) Amantadine

d) Acyclovir

Tick the drug, inhibiting uncoating of the viral RNA:

a) Vidarabine

b) Rimantadine

c) Acyclovir

d) Didanozine

Tick the drug, inhibiting viral reverse transcriptase:

a) Zidovudine

b) Vidarabine

c) Rimantadine

d) Gancyclovir

Tick the drug, inhibiting viral proteases:

a) Rimantadine

b) Acyclovir

c) Saquinavir

d) Zalcitabine

Tick the drug of choice for herpes and cytomegalovirus infection treatment:

a) Saquinavir

b) Interferon alfa

c) Didanozine

d) Acyclovir

136

Tick the drug which belongs to nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors:

a) Zidovudine

b) Vidarabine

c) Nevirapine

d) Gancyclovir

All of the following antiviral drugs are antiretroviral agents, EXCEPT:

a) Acyclovir

b) Zidovudine

c) Zalcitabine

d) Didanozine

Tick the drug used for influenza A prevention:

a) Acyclovir

b) Rimantadine

c) Saquinavir

d) Foscarnet

Tick the drug used for HIV infection treatment, a derivative of nucleosides:

a) Acyclovir

b) Zidovudine

c) Gancyclovir

d) Trifluridine

Tick the antiviral drug which belongs to endogenous proteins:

a) Amantadine

b) Saquinavir

c) Interferon alfa

d) Pencyclovir

Tick the drug which belongs to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors:

a) Didanosine

b) Gancyclovir

c) Nevirapine

d) Vidarabine

All of the following antiviral drugs are anti-influenza agents, EXCEPT:

a) Acyclovir

b) Amantadine

c) Interferons

d) Rimantadine

Tick the unwanted effects of zidovudine:

a) Hallucinations, dizziness

b) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea, insomnia

c) Hypertension, vomiting

d) Peripheral neuropathy

Tick the unwanted effects of intravenous acyclovir infusion:

a) Renal insufficiency, tremors, delerium

b) Rash, diarrhea, nausea

c) Neuropathy, abdominal pain

d) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea, insomnia

Tick the drug that can induce peripheral neuropathy and oral ulceration:

a) Acyclovire

b) Zalcitabine

c) Zidovudine

d) Saquinavir

Tick the unwanted effects of didanozine:

a) Hallucinations, dizziness, insomnia

b) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea

c) Hypertension, vomiting, diarrhea

d) Peripheral neuropathy, pancreatitis, diarrhea, hyperuricemia

Tick the unwanted effects of indinavir:

a) Hypotension, vomiting, dizziness

b) Nephrolithiasis, nausea, hepatotoxicity

c) Peripheral neuropathy, pancreatitis, hyperuricemia

d) Anemia, neutropenia, nausea

Tick the drug that can induce nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain and rhinitis:

137

a) Acyclovire

b) Zalcitabine

c) Zidovudine

d) Saquinavir

All of the following effects are disadvantages of anticancer drugs, EXCEPT:

a) Low selectivity to cancer cells

b) Depression of bone marrow

c) Depression of angiogenesis

d) Depression of immune system

Rational combination of anticancer drugs is used to:

a) Provide synergism resulting from the use of anticancer drugs with different mechanisms combination

b) Provide synergism resulting from the use of anticancer drugs with the same mechanisms combination

c) Provide stimulation of immune system

d) Provide stimulation of cell proliferation

Tick the anticancer alkylating drug, a derivative of chloroethylamine:

a) Methotrexate

b) Cisplatin

c) Cyclophosphamide

d) Carmustine

Tick the anticancer alkylating drug, a derivative of ethylenimine:

a) Mercaptopurine

b) Thiotepa

c) Chlorambucil

d) Procarbazine

Tick the group of hormonal drugs used for cancer treatment:

a) Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

b) Glucocorticoids and gonadal hormones

c) Gonadal hormones and somatotropin

d) Insulin

Tick the anticancer alkylating drug, a derivative of alkylsulfonate:

a) Fluorouracil

b) Carboplatin

c) Vinblastine

d) Busulfan

Tick the anticancer drug of plant origin:

a) Dactinomycin

b) Vincristine

c) Methotrexate

d) Procarbazine

Action mechanism of alkylating agents is:

a) Producing carbonium ions altering protein structure

b) Producing carbonium ions altering DNA structure

c) Structural antagonism against purine and pyrimidine

d) Inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA synthesis

Tick the anticancer drug, a pyrimidine antagonist:

a) Fluorouracil

b) Mercaptopurine

c) Thioguanine

d) Methotrexate

Methotrexate is:

a) A purine antagonist

b) A folic acid antagonist

c) An antibiotic

d) An alkylating agent

Tick the antibiotic for cancer chemotherapy:

a) Cytarabine

b) Doxorubicin

c) Gentamycin

d) Etoposide

Fluorouracil belongs to:

a) Antibiotics

b) Antimetabolites

c) Plant alkaloids

d) Bone marrow growth factor

Tick the action mechanism of anticancer drugs belonging to plant alkaloids:

a) Inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA synthesis

b) Cross-linking of DNA

c) Mitotic arrest at a metaphase

d) Nonselective inhibition of aromatases

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS. AGENTS FOR CHEMOTHERAPY OF CANCER

General contraindications for anticancer drugs are:

a) Depression of bone marrow

b) Acute infections

c) Severe hepatic and/or renal insufficiency

d) All of the above

Action mechanism of methotrexate is:

a) Inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase

b) Activation of cell differentiation

c) Catabolic depletion of serum asparagine

d) All of the above

Tick the anticancer drug belonging to inorganic metal complexes:

a) Dacarbazine

b) Cisplatin

c) Methotrexate

d) Vincristine

Tick the indication for estrogens in oncological practice:

a) Leukemia

b) Cancer of prostate

c) Endometrial cancer

d) Brain tumors

Enzyme drug used for acute leukemia treatment:

a) Dihydrofolate reductase

b) Asparaginase

c) Aromatase

d) DNA gyrase

All of the following drugs are derivatives of nitrosoureas, EXCEPT:

a) Carmustine

b) Vincristine

c) Lomustine

d) Semustine

Tick the group of drugs used as subsidiary medicines in cancer treatment:

a) Cytoprotectors

b) Bone marrow growth factors

c) Antimetastatic agents

d) All of the above

Tick the estrogen inhibitor:

a) Leuprolide

b) Tamoxifen

c) Flutamide

d) Anastrozole

Tick the antiandrogen drug:

a) Flutamide

b) Aminoglutethimide

c) Tamoxifen

d) Testosterone

Tick the drug belonging to aromatase inhibitors:

a) Octreotide

b) Anastrozole

c) Flutamide

d) Tamoxifen

Tick the drug belonging to gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists:

a) Leuprolide

b) Tamoxifen

c) Flutamide

d) Anastrozole

Pharmacology MCQ for Anti Cancer Chemotherapy Drugs

Please keep visiting our website as we assure you great content with loads of valid information. Do not hesitate to speak to us if you have any doubts. We will guide you through any of your academic doubts. To be a successful pharma professional all you need is great pool of knowledge and network. it is recommended you to build your network right from the day you enter your college. Every contact can count. So never miss an opportunity to meet your alumni or any meet ups to build your network.network building is great for you in this competitive field. 🙂

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Pharmaceutical Equipment & Machinery

October 5, 2023July 8, 2019 by Renee

Pharmaceutical Equipment & Machinery

When we speak about Pharmaceutical equipment & machinery we speak about endless number of equipment and machinery that are being used on a day to day basis in order to improve the quality of pharmaceutical products and its activities towards treatment. The field of pharmaceutical requirements is huge and is tied up with different avenues which make it more important for the equipment’s and machinery to work perfectly and produce high quality of products that are error free on a whole. Today we will be trying shredding few lights on some of the equipment and machinery in use and a little bit about how they are working.

Firstly speaking about the pharmaceutical equipment there are many different types and sizes that are found. Each of them perform specific tasks and have their own distinct actions as well. One of such is Homogenizer Equipment which under high pressure reduces the size of the pharmaceutical product particles and provides turbulence, impact and acceleration along with it making them more clinically effective and stable. Then there is Pharmaceutical Drying Equipment which has the capability of gently drying of pharma ingredients especially crystallization from water by means of filter process or from one or more organic solvents. Speaking about the pharmaceutical filling equipment, these equipment are specifically used for expediting small and large scale product manufacturing with providing constant output demands. The equipment works on automated or semi-automated control. Out of different types of instrument and equipment that are being used one of such equipment that have a very effective part to take place is Powder filling equipment. These equipment are used to fill the pharmaceutical powder products. The equipment works automatically and helps in the production. There is the Auger filling machine as well which also works in the same way as Powder filling equipment. There are different other equipment like spray drying accessories, syringe filling equipment, Vial filling equipment, pharmaceutical checkweighers, pharmaceutical extrusion equipment which have their own functionalities and working procedures.

Now speaking about Pharmaceutical machinery, the use and application of them in case of pharmaceutical products does have a high significance. There are different types of machinery that are into use namely, Vibro sifter, Tablet Press, tableting machine, Rapid mixer granulator, Mass mixer, multi mill, coating pan, V blender, tablet making machines, tablet coating machines, sigma mixer and the list is endless. Now, where tablet press, a specific machine that is used for compressing powder into tablet and giving it a specific form and shape, Pharmaceutical Vibro sifter is used for separating different materials based on the size of their particle and use. The tableting machine is another very important machinery that is used in the pharmaceutical production houses. This device is used for making tablets for consumption. Rapid mixer granulator is another important machine that is used for formation of granules by the process of rising, tumbling and whirling motion of material. The drying machine is done by adding up all the ingredients into the RMG. Mass mixer is used for mixing of ingredients whereas multi mill, a self contained portable unit is used for shredding, high speed granulating, mixing, pulversing and chopping purposes. It has multifunctional working capabilities and one of the most prime machinery used in pharmaceutical production houses.

Pharmaceutical equipment refers to the various tools, machines, devices, and systems used in the pharmaceutical industry for the development, production, packaging, and quality control of pharmaceutical products. These products include drugs, vaccines, biologics, and other medicinal compounds. Pharmaceutical equipment plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety, efficacy, and quality of pharmaceutical products. Here are some key aspects of pharmaceutical equipment:

Manufacturing Equipment:

This category includes machines and systems used for the actual production of pharmaceuticals. Some examples include:

Mixers and Blenders:

Used for mixing and blending powders, granules, and other ingredients to create uniform drug formulations.

Detailed Mixers and Blenders in Pharmaceutical Industry is in this link

Tablet Presses:

Used to compress powders into tablets or pills.

Read about Tablet Press in Detail

Go through Tablet Making Machine India – Cost Price Manual

Capsule Filling Machines:

Used to fill empty capsules with pharmaceutical formulations.

Know about Capsule Filling machines in detail

Granulators:

Used to granulate and size-reduce materials.

Coating Machines:

Applied for coating tablets, pills, or capsules to control release and protect the drug.

Quality Control Equipment:

These tools are essential for ensuring the quality and safety of pharmaceutical products. Examples include:

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC):

Used to analyze the chemical composition and purity of drugs.
Mass Spectrometers:

Identify and quantify chemical compounds in pharmaceuticals.

Microscopes:

Used for the visual inspection of pharmaceutical products.
Spectrophotometers:

Measure the absorbance or emission of light, often used in drug analysis.
Packaging Equipment:

Pharmaceutical products need secure and sterile packaging to protect them from contamination and maintain their integrity. Equipment includes:

Blister Packaging Machines:

Used for packaging tablets and capsules in individual blister packs.

Labeling Machines:

Apply labels with product information to packaging.

Capping Machines:

Seal containers with caps or closures.

Ampoule Filling and Sealing Machines:

Used for filling and sealing ampoules containing liquid medications.

Sterilization Equipment:

Ensures that pharmaceutical products are free from harmful microorganisms. Common methods include autoclaves, dry heat ovens, and gamma radiation.

Material Handling Equipment:

Includes conveyors, lifts, and other machinery used to transport materials within the manufacturing facility.

Laboratory Equipment:

Essential for research and development in the pharmaceutical industry, including items like analytical balances, incubators, and centrifuges.

Bioprocessing Equipment:

Used in the production of biopharmaceuticals, such as bioreactors for cell culture and filtration systems.

Click here to read more on Bioprocessing Equipment

Cleaning Room Equipment

These facilities require specialized equipment to maintain strict cleanliness and control environmental conditions.

Automation and Robotics: Increasingly, pharmaceutical manufacturing processes are becoming automated and robotic to improve precision, reduce human error, and increase efficiency.

Read in detail – Cleanroom Equipment

Regulatory Compliance:

All pharmaceutical equipment must meet strict regulatory standards, such as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and FDA regulations in the United States.

Pharmaceutical equipment manufacturers and suppliers must adhere to stringent quality control measures to ensure that the equipment they produce meets the highest standards of safety, accuracy, and reliability. This is crucial to maintain the integrity of pharmaceutical products and protect public health.

On conclusion it can be easily said that these machinery and equipment are an integral part of pharmaceutical production and without their use things would have been something very much different and difficult to handle. These products cost very highly due to the extreme capabilities they possesses and thus needs proper guidance when handling.

Pharmacodynamics – Dose Response relationship- Terms Definitions PDF

July 26, 2020July 2, 2019 by Renee

Pharmacodynamics. We exactly know what pharmacodynamics is. It involves how the drugs act on target cells to alter cellular function. Let us discuss Dose Response relationship in this article. The exact relationship between the dose and the response depends on the biological object under observation and the drug employed is called Dose Response relationship.

Dose Response relationship

When a logarithm of dose as abscissa and responses as ordinate are constructed graphically, the “S” shaped or sigmoid type curve is obtained.
The lowest concentration of a drug that elicits a response is minimal dose, and the largest concentration after which further increase in concentration will not change the response is the maximal dose.

1. Graded dose effect:

As the dose administered to a single subject or tissue increases, the pharmacological response also increases in graded fashion up to ceiling effect.
– It is used for characterization of the action of drugs. The concentration that is required to produce 50 % of the maximum effect is termed as EC50 or ED50.

2. Quantal dose effect:

It is all or none response, the sensitive objects give response to small doses of a drug while some will be resistant and need very large doses. The quantal dose effect curve is often characterized by stating the median effective dose and the median lethal dose.

Median lethal dose or LD50:

This is the dose (mg/kg), which would be expected to kill one half of a population of the same species and strain.

Median effective dose or ED50:

This is the dose (mg/kg), which produces a desired response in 50 per cent of test population.

Therapeutic index:

It is an approximate assessment of the safety of the drug. It is the ratio of the median lethal dose and the median effective dose. Also called as therapeutic window or safety.
Herapeutic index (T. I) = The larger the therapeutic index, the safer is the drug.

Penicillin has a very high therapeutic index, while it is much smaller for the digitalis preparation.

D. Structural activity relationship
The activity of a drug is intimately related to its chemical structure. Knowledge about the chemical structure of a drug is useful for:
(i) Synthesis of new compounds with more specific actions and fewer adverse
reactions
(ii) Synthesis of competitive antagonist and
(iii) Understanding the mechanism of drug action.
Slight modification of structure of the compound can change the effect completely.

Download the pdf of this article here to read:

Pharmacodynamics – Dose Response relationship- Terms Definitions PDF

These are few very important terms you need to understand in pharmacodynamics.

Hope you like the article. Please share your views comments and doubts in the comments section. We ,love to hear from you and help you.