Pharmaceutical Companies in Cochin || Kochi Kerala Trivandrum Pharma Industry List

Pharmaceutical Companies in Cochin || Kochi Kerala Trivandrum Pharma Industry List

Pharmaceutical companies in Cochin:Cochin also named as Kochi is a port city since 1341, in southwest India of coastal Kerala. In terms of Pharmaceutical industry, the state has an annual sales record of Rs. 11,000 crores in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. 95% of these products are brought to the state from other parts of the country.  In 2017, addressing the pharmaceutical manufacturers, marketers, traders and pharma journalists in Kochi, the President of All Kerala Chemists & Druggists Association (AKCDA) stated to set up a Pharma Park in Kochi under the Micro and Small Enterprises-Cluster Development Programme (MSE-CDP) of Government of India. It would boost the domestic pharma production; help national marketing and exports of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics from Kerala.

Pharmaceutical Companies in Cochin

Kerala Industrial Infrastructure Development Corporation (Kinfra), the nodal agency for the development of industrial infrastructure in the state, had launched the Kerala Pharma Park as a manufacturing base for bulk drugs and formulations. The cluster project is established in the PPP model. The exclusive zone for pharmaceuticals would cover an area of 21.5 acres at Kakkanadu Kinfra Estate at an estimated cost of Rs. 90.5 crores. The park will provide land and modern infrastructure facilities for manufacturing units along with well-equipped laboratory for testing in a cluster-based approach. This is the 23rd industrial park project of Kinfra. The facilities in the Pharma Park include roads, water supply scheme, electricity, and warehouse, effluent treatment plant (ETP) and testing lab.

Pharmaceutical Companies in Kochi

Here are the details of the Pharmaceutical companies in Cochin:-

Akesiss Pharma Pvt. Ltd

Kochi, Kerala

0484 254 4448

Cipla Limited

Kakkanad, Kerala

098470 30944

 

MSD Pharmaceuticals Pvt Ltd

Kochi, Kerala

0484 297 0083

MSN Laboratories Private Limited

Kochi, Kerala

0484 235 5188

Get Well Pharmaceuticals

Kochi, Kerala

0484 235 0240

 

Clover Health Care Pharmacy

Kochi, Kerala

0484 297 0836

Wunderz Pharmaceuticals

Kochi, Kerala

 

Vysali Pharmaceuticals Limited

Kochi, Kerala

0484 241 0256

 

Rose Pharma – Ayurveda Pharmacy

Ernakulam, Kochi, Kerala

0484 239 5518

 

B.S.N Medical Private Limited

Kochi, Kerala

0484 235 5286

 

Trust Pharmaceuticals

Kochi, Kerala

0484 233 8123

 

 

Sar Healthline Private Limited

Kochi, Kerala

0484 402 8287

Solvay Pharma India Limited

Kochi, Kerala

084823 96376

 

Lancer Drugs and Pharmaceuticals

Kochi, Kerala

0484 401 9888

 

Dreams Pharma

Kochi, Kerala

Pharmaceutical Companies in Cochin || Kochi Kerala Trivandrum Pharma Industry List 

Ordain Health Care Global Private Limited

Kochi, Kerala

0484 240 0971

 

Leela Enterprises

Kochi, Kerala

0484 222 4668

 

Madhava Pharmaceutical Laboratories

Kochi, Kerala

093886 19211

 

 

Fair Pharma

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 236 9536

 

Pulikkal Pharma Distributors

Kochi, Kerala

096331 88644

 

Paulson Pharma

Kochi, Kerala

0484 235 7143

 

Gancian Pharmaceuticals & Research Centre

Ernakulam, Kerala

099954 78894

 

Thaikkavu Pharmacy

Kochi, Kerala

 

Indoco Depo

Kochi, Kerala

0484 253 1827

 

Aarjeaar Pharmaceuticals

Kochi, Kerala

0484 236 7514

Cochin Pharma

Kochi, Kerala

0484 237 3247

Pharma promoters

Kochi, Kerala

0484 239 3015

 

Mankind Pharma Limited

Kochi, Kerala

 

Bruklyn Associates

Kochi, Kerala

084826 22452

 

Themis Pharmaceuticals

Kochi, Kerala

 

AZTON HEALTHCARE Pvt. Ltd.

Kochi, Kerala

 

The Ayurveda Pharmacy Limited

Kochi, Kerala

 

Rowez Life Sciences Pvt Ltd

Kochi, Kerala

097466 98455

 

 

Bio Pharma

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 68827

 

Treato Pharmaceuticals

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 277 8106

 

Osseous Healthcare P (Ltd)

Kochi, Kerala

090617 55501

PNB Vesper Life Science Pvt. Ltd.

Kochi, Kerala

098476 22342

 

Lloyd Healthcare Pvt. Ltd.

Kochi, Kerala

0484 253 3599

Kunnath Pharmaceuticals

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 405 8282

 

Cochin Drug House

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 52164

 

 

USV Pvt. Ltd

Kochi, Kerala

0484 234 5083

 

Capstab Mediworld Pvt. Ltd.

Kochi, Kerala

0484 646 3307

 

Oushadhi

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 95637

 

LIFESTAR PHARMA LTD

Ernakulam

0484 606 0915

 

Cochin Documentation

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 56103

 

Dadha Pharma Private Limited

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 66622

 

Grahams Pharmaceutical

Ernakulam, Kerala

 

 

 

Fenestra Pharmaceuticals Pvt Ltd

Ernakulam, Kerala

094477 79947

  1. T. Kuruvila Sons

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 234 4656

V C Pharmaceuticals

Ernakulam, Kerala

084824 42235

 

  1. B. Pharmaceutical Laboratories

Kochi, Kerala

0484 243 1299

 

Astra Zeneca Pharma India Limited

Thrikkakkara, Kerala

080903 84650

 

Uni pharma

Ernakulam, Kerala

094470 52748

 

LEVITAS PHARMA

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 238 9444

 

 

Captab Formulations

Kochi, Kerala

098460 32222

Kodakkat Pharma Distributors

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 46720

 

Bakson Drugs & Pharmaceuticals Pvt Ltd

Ernakulam, Kerala

094477 67603

 

Jagsonpal Pharmaceuticals Limited

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 92659

 

St Antony Pharma

Ernakulam, Kerala

084824 26763

 

Viswanath Ayurvedic Pharmaceuticals

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 64888

 

Panopharm

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 278 1221

 

 

Hindustan Antibiotics Limited

0484 210 2567

 

Vindhyan Ayurvedic Pharmaceuticals Pvt Ltd

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 240 2631

Auxesia Life Sciences Private Limited

Ernakulam, Kerala

099466 61702

ROY PHARMA Homoeopathic Pharmaceuticals

Perumpadappu, Kerala

080893 82913

L Nova Pharmaceuticals

Ernakulam, Kerala

S J Pharma

Ernakulam, Kerala

Franco India Pharmaceuticals Limited

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 255 1683

Maruthy Pharmaceuticals

Ernakulam, Kerala

084823 95148

Twilight Litaka Pharma Limited Kaloor

Ernakulam, Kerala

Century Pharmaceuticals

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 252 4178

Cochin Arya Vaidya Sala Pharmacy

Ernakulam, Kerala

0484 277 7797

Prabhus

Ernakulam, Kerala

Arjuna Natural Ltd

Aluva, Kerala

0484 408 0400

Present Scenario:-

To develop the scheme, the government of India under the Make in India initiative was to provide a financial assistance of Rs. 20 crores or 70% of the project cost, whichever is less. The project would be materialized in the next two years. Kinfra should take initiative to attract the marketing companies in the state to invest in the project. As there are bigger projects running in neighbouring states, without any financial support as an incentive to the industry from the government, the project was unlikely to kick off. The cluster will turn out to be a global pharmaceutical hub for production, research, marketing, employment etc. Kinfra should give priority to the qualified pharmacists in the state in areas of various job opportunities.

Pharmaceutical Companies in Bhopal Madhya Pradesh || MP Pharma Industry List Jobs

Pharmaceutical companies in Bhopal

Pharmaceutical Companies in Bhopal

Pharmaceutical sector in Bhopal(Madhya Pradesh) is reportedly a growing one because of its huge population base and robust connectivity that is easily accessible to the domestic market. Prior to independence, only a few pharmaceutical players were existent in the region. The pharmaceutical industry of the region could expand only after independence. Dhar district of Pitampura region near Indore holds the second rank in housing the pharmaceutical industries. The state has an annual turnover of 1.5 billion dollars.

Pharmaceutical units are concentrated in Indore and the factors contributing to the growth of pharmaceuticals here are:

  • The pro-active attitude of authorities led to the formation of pharma associations
  • Availability of basic infrastructure facilities & quality manpower
  • Production of machinery and raw material suppliers
  • Availability of good transportation facilities by rail, road and air and the establishment of a dry port at Pitampur cargo facility
  • Proximity to the markets of adjoining states had an impact in the development of Indore pharma units
  • Establishment of testing laboratories both in private and government sector

Indore being the pharmaceutical hub of the state is one of the largest producers of products such as tablets, capsules, drug formulations in the country. Overall 400 units are functioning in the region excluding repackers. More than 280 manufacturing units belong to Madhya Pradesh and 152 of them are the formulation manufacturers. These units provide direct or indirect employment for more than 100000 people. The pharmaceutical units are spread out through the region of Indore in Bhopal, Ratlam, Shivpuri, Murena, Katni, Jabalpur, Mandla, Guna, Chhindwara, Sagar, Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh, Rewa, Satna, Sidhi, Shadol, Raisen, Sehore, Vidisha, Mandsaur, Neemuch and Harda.

Pharmaceutical Companies in Bhopal Madhya Pradesh

Here is a list of Pharmaceutical Companies in Bhopal:-

 

HIND PHARMA

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 423 5734

 

Lifespan Biotech Pvt. Ltd.

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

07480 408 328

 

WILIANCE PHARMACEUTICALS PRIVATE LIMITED

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

095222 20496

 

Dayal Pharmaceuticals

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 275 0410

 

EEI Capsules Limited

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 258 6313

 

Aristo Pharmaceuticals Pvt Ltd

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

07480 233 291

 

Saif Pharma

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

099935 25252

 

New Life Laboratories Private Limited

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 424 8654

 

Upkaran Pharmaceuticals

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 255 5758

 

Lupin

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

07480 410 800

 

Pharma Traders & Co

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 425 0562

 

Rowtech Formulations

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

088710 00001

 

Medicam Health Cares

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 423 3003

 

P.S. Pharma

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 274 5306

 

WATER PURIFICATION TABLETS

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

093036 96517

 

Arul Pharmeta LLP

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 409 4644

 

 

Jhindrop Pharmaceuticals

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

089599 46097

 

Scortis Labs (P) Ltd/Adiv Of Alvin Pharma

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 404 5100

Pharma Medico

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 428 7991

 

Gopal Pharma

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 425 3701

Ascon Pharmaceuticals

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 425 2525

 

Apex Pharmaceuticals

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 255 0108

 

Anjani Pharmaceuticals

Madhya Pradesh

07480 490 197 ext. 233861

 

 

 

S&A GLOBAL ENTERPRISES

M.P. Nagar Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

094249 64410

 

Richer & Swessary Chemicals Pty. Ltd

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 420 3000

 

Asivadh Medicals

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 420 5312

 

Essgee Formulations

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

 

Limbic Life Sciences Pvt. Ltd.

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

 

Sim Sim Hair Oil

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

099933 32144

Bharat Drug Palace

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

098260 16460

Ideal Pharma

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

089820 02220

EUSTOMA LABORATORIES PVT.LTD.

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

097952 16788

 

Nouvelle Laboratoire

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 426 0019

 

Shrinathji Chemicals

Raisen, Madhya Pradesh

07480 401 531

NFPS

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

079877 23543

Dielectric Corporation

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

0755 426 0980

 

Present Scenario:-

Due to a rich ecosystem of pharmaceuticals throughout the Bhopal region, several multinationals are attracted to invest and make it bigger. They have located their marketing offices along with the wholesale retailers in the area. A proposed biotechnology park under  PPP model of 180 acres in Indore would serve as the prime focus of Pharma sector. The key players in the ecosystem are planning to set up industrial units of pharmaceuticals, agriculture and food processing as well. The Pharma park would include amenities like incubation centre, pilot plants, warehouses, business enterprises zone with healthcare centres.

Paracetamol || Child Adults Dosage Weight Calculator || Uses || Side Effects || Structure

Paracetamol Dosage - Children 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 years

Paracetamol Dosage By Weight Child

The correct dose of paracetamol for a child depends on their weight. The usual dose is 15 mg per kilogram of weight. In other words, if a baby weighs 10 kg it should have 10 x 15mg, which is 150 mg. This dose can be taken once every 4 to 6 hours, up to 4 times in 24 hours if needed.

Maximum Dose Of Paracetamol For Child

For children without underlying medical conditions, or with underlying medical conditions that are not inflammatory in nature, beginning treatment with oral paracetamol is preferred because of its long track record of safety.
The correct dose of paracetamol for a child depends on their weight. The usual dose is 15 mg per kilogram of weight.
You should not exceed the recommended dose except on the advice of your doctor. No child should take a total of more than 60 mg per kilogram of their body weight in a day.

Paracetamol tablet dosage for 10 year old:

Example of calculating a paracetamol dose:

A boy, aged 10 years, weighing 67 kg presents with myalgia of a suspected viral cause. You prescribe paracetamol for management at home. The calculation for paracetamol dosing is 15 mg × 67 kg = 1005 mg , however, you round this down to the maximum adult dose of 1 g, which is prescribed as 20 mL of a 250 mg/5 mL formulation, every four to six hours with no more than four doses every 24 hours.

Paracetamol Dosage Weight Calculator

Paracetamol is a medicine that is commonly used in children and adults which is available without a prescription. The main uses of paracetamol are for relief of pain and for reducing a fever.
Paracetamol Dosage By Weight Adults

Paracetamol Dosage - Children 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 years

Paracetamol Side Effects:

Paracetamol is one of the most commonly used ‘over-the-counter’ medicines, especially for the minor illnesses suffered by many children. But it is not always used in the correct dosage, which may make it less effective or dangerous.

Reasons Side Effects with paracetamol included:

  1. Exceeding recommended doses
  2. Too frequent dosing
  3. Prolonged dosing (up to 24 days in one case)

Paracetamol rarely causes side-effects when it is taken as recommended, but if you experience any symptoms which you think may be due to it, discuss them with your pharmacist or doctor.

Paracetamol Contraindications:

Paracetamol overdose can result in liver damage and, at very high dosages, can be fatal.

Some people need to take extra care with paracetamol. Like :

If you have had an allergic reaction to paracetemol or any other medicines in the past
If you have liver or kidney problems
If you regularly drink more than the maximum recommended amount of alcohol (14 units a week)
If you take medicine for epilepsy
If you take medicine for tuberculosis (TB)
If you take the blood-thinner warfarin and you may need to take paracetamol on a regular basis

Paracetamol Indication:

Too much paracetamol is very harmful to the liver.

If you realise you have had too much (including other products with paracetamol in it), call your doctor, nurse or the Poisons Centre 0800 POISON (0800 764 766) immediately.
Older people are most at risk so take extra care.
Do NOT wait for signs of an overdose as these appear late when the damage to the liver is already done.

Late signs may include:

  • nausea or vomiting
  • diarrhoea,
  • yellow skin or eyes,
  • poor appetite,
  • confusion or extreme sleepiness.

paracetamol dosage weight calculator:

Maximum dose of paracetamol for Adults:

Do not take more than 4 grams in 24 hours. This equates to 8 x 500 mg tablets, or 6 X 665 mg tablets per day.
Keep track of the timing of the doses and check when it was last taken before taking it again.

Paracetamol tablet dosage for children:

The oral dose of paracetamol for children aged 1 month to 18 years is:

15 mg/kg per dose, to a maximum of 1 g per dose, every four to six hours, with a maximum of 60 mg/kg daily, without exceeding 4 g daily

paracetamol dosage by weight adults

Paracetamol Dosage for Infants:

For children aged 6 months-1 year: 120 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
For children aged 3-5 months: 60 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
For children aged 2 months following immunization: 60 mg, repeated once after 4-6 hours if needed.

Paracetamol Dosage for Toddlers:

For children aged 2-3 years: 180 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
For children aged 6 months-1 year: 120 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.

Paracetamol Uses:

Paracetamol is Used for Pain and fever (high temperature) in adults and children. Available as Tablet, capsule, soluble tablet, ‘melt-in-the-mouth’ tablet, oral liquid, oral liquid sachets, suppository and injection

FOR MORE DETAILS OF USES OF PARACETAMOL CLICK

Paracetamol 500mg Dosage

Generally 3 times a day or 500 mg 6hrs

Paracetamol Dosage For 12 Year Old

Paracetamol Dosage Calculator Adults:

The usual dose in adults is 500 mg to 1 gram (1 or 2 tablets) every 4 to 6 hours when required for pain.

Paracetamol can be safely used by adults including pregnant women but there is a limit to the amount of paracetamol that can be safely taken in a 24-hour period. Taking more than the daily limit is very harmful to the liver. For adults the usual maximum dose is 4 grams per day. This may be less if you are frail or elderly.

Paracetamol tablets are available in two strengths — 500 mg tablets or 665 mg tablets.
The 665 mg tablets are used for osteoarthritis

Paracetamol 500mg

Paracetamol is used for relief of pain and Fever. Analgesic and Anti Pyretic. Paracetamol has analgesic (pain relief) and antipyretic(reduces fever) but no anti-inflammatory activity; it is less irritant to the stomach than Ibuprofen.
It will not cause drowsiness or cause your child to sleep. It can be used for children and babies over 3 months old. Younger babies must see the doctor.
Paracetamol is highly lipid-soluble and has a relatively short half life of 2–2.5 hours.2 Following oral administration, paracetamol is rapidly absorbed across the mucosa of the duodenum and into the bloodstream where it is mainly metabolised by the liver.

Paracetamol Dosage By Weight Child Adult pdf

Recommended doses of paracetamol are:

 

  • For adults and children aged 16 years and older: 500 mg-1 g every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of 4 g daily.
  • For children aged 12-15 years: 480-750 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 10-11 years: 480-500 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 8-9 years: 360-375 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 6-7 years: 240-250 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 4-5 years: 240 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 2-3 years: 180 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 6 months-1 year: 120 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 3-5 months: 60 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.
  • For children aged 2 months following immunization: 60 mg, repeated once after 4-6 hours if needed.

Paracetamol Tablet

Food Interactions to Paracetamol: 🙄 

Avoid alcohol (may increase risk of hepatotoxicity).
Take without regard to meals.

Pharmacodynamics of Paracetamol: 😆 

Acetaminophen (USAN) or Paracetamol (INN) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of fever, headaches, and other minor aches and pains. It is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu medications and many prescription analgesics. It is extremely safe in standard doses, but because of its wide availability, deliberate or accidental overdoses are not uncommon. Acetaminophen, unlike other common analgesics such as aspirin and ibuprofen, has no anti-inflammatory properties or effects on platelet function, and it is not a member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs. At therapeutic doses acetaminophen does not irritate the lining of the stomach nor affect blood coagulation, kidney function, or the fetal ductus arteriosus (as NSAIDs can). Like NSAIDs and unlike opioid analgesics, acetaminophen does not cause euphoria or alter mood in any way. Acetaminophen and NSAIDs have the benefit of being completely free of problems with addiction, dependence, tolerance and withdrawal. Acetaminophen is used on its own or in combination with pseudoephedrine, dextromethorphan, chlorpheniramine, diphenhydramine, doxylamine, codeine, hydrocodone, or oxycodone.

Pharmacology and Mechanism of action of Paracetamol:

Acetaminophen is thought to act primarily in the CNS, increasing the pain threshold by inhibiting both isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3 enzymes involved in prostaglandin (PG) synthesis. Unlike NSAIDs, acetaminophen does not inhibit cyclooxygenase in peripheral tissues and, thus, has no peripheral anti-inflammatory affects. While aspirin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of COX and directly blocks the enzyme’s active site, studies have found that acetaminophen indirectly blocks COX, and that this blockade is ineffective in the presence of peroxides. This might explain why acetaminophen is effective in the central nervous system and in endothelial cells but not in platelets and immune cells which have high levels of peroxides. Studies also report data suggesting that acetaminophen selectively blocks a variant of the COX enzyme that is different from the known variants COX-1 and COX-2. This enzyme is now referred to as COX-3. Its exact mechanism of action is still poorly understood, but future research may provide further insight into how it works. The antipyretic properties of acetaminophen are likely due to direct effects on the heat-regulating centres of the hypothalamus resulting in peripheral vasodilation, sweating and hence heat dissipation.

Paracetamol Structure

Paracetamol 3D Structure -Tablet Acetaminophen composition Paracetamol Structure -Acetaminophen chemical structure

paracetamol 125 mg dosage

Paracetamol dosage for 12 year old

Paracetamol dose for children aged 12-15 years: 480-750 mg every 4-6 hours up to a maximum of four doses daily.

How to Write a Pharmacy Progress Note ? When to Write ? Procedure ?

How to Write a Pharmacy Progress Note ? When to Write ? Procedure ?

Hello readers. Today here we discuss about What is a Pharmacy Progress Note ? How to Write a Pharmacy Progress Note ? When to Write Pharmacy Progress Note ? Pharmacy Progress Note Procedure.

When to Write a Pharmacy Progress Note -Procedure

What is a Pharmacy Progress note?

When it comes to documentation of pharmacy services and whenever there is something to communicate to the entire medical team, note(s) is written in response to a formal consult in case of pain management, antibiotic monitoring, medication reconciliation, etc… E.g.: “Would consider changing Synthroid 10 mg po daily to 100 mcg po daily”

When to write a progress note?

There are 3 main ways to communicate with other members of the medical team. Not all communication is apt for a progress note. According to the urgency of the case, the communication types are chosen.

  1. Progress notes (about the consultation/documentation process)
  2. Sticky notes (or other communication not part of the medical record, helps build a relationship with the team.)
  3. Verbal communication (in person or on the phone; if there is a grossly ridiculous issue going on)How to Write a Pharmacy Progress Note ? When to Write ? Procedure ?

How to write a pharmacy progress note?

  • Write to the point being brief– No one wants to read a long note with mostly ‘fluff’ in it. Physicians haveto read each note. If you can express what is needed in a single sentence, do it. If you suggest a pneumococcal vaccine, in the middle of a 3-page note the physician doesn’t read it, and the patient goes on to develop pneumonia. A physician’s mind is being sued when they are reading a lengthy progress note.
  • Use non-judgmental language– It is easy to be misinterpreted because you can’t use body-language or intonation to show that you are genuinely trying to help take better care of a patient, so make sure you avoid using judgmental language, such as the word “obviously” or the phrase “should have”. Use non-judgmental words like “consider”, “suppose” with your recommendation.
  • Prepare an alternative to SOAP – Physicians write SOAP (subjective, objective, assessment, plan) notes because the format lends itself well to problem-based care. TITRS (title, introduction, text, recommendation, and signature) format helps to find communicate the information such as:

The Title-Introduction reveals the basic questions “Who am I? My purpose? Who is/are the patient? Their needs”. Text must support your clear and complete recommendations with subjective & objective information. It should be followed by your signature and how you can be reached.

Decide prudently when to communicate verbally, or with a sticky note or a progress note. It can cost a patient’s life.

Hope you got the answers for What is a Pharmacy Progress Note ? How to Write a Pharmacy Progress Note ? When to Write Pharmacy Progress Note ? Pharmacy Progress Note Procedure ? 

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes – PDF PPT – ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes - PDF PPT - ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA

Pharmacodynamics Definition:

Pharmacodynamics the branch of pharmacology concerned with the effects of drugs and the mechanism of their action.

“Pharmacodynamics involves how the drugs act on target cells to alter cellular function.”

A. Receptor and non-receptor mechanisms: Most of the drugs act by interacting with a cellular component called receptor. Some drugs act through simple physical or chemical reactions without interacting with any receptor.

• Receptors are protein molecules present either on the cell surface or with in the cell e.g. adrenergic receptors, cholinoceptors, insulin receptors, etc.
• The endogenous neurotransmitters, hormones, autacoids and most of the drugs produce their effects by binding with their specific receptors.
• Aluminium hydroxide and magnesium trisilicate, which are used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease act by non-receptor mechanism by neutralizing the gastric acid.

Pharmacodynamics Basics:

Many drugs are similar to or have similar chemical groups to the naturally occurring chemical and have the ability to bind onto a receptor where one of two things can happen- either the receptor will respond or it will be blocked.
A drug, which is able to fit onto a receptor, is said to have affinity for that receptor. Efficacy is the ability of a drug to produce an effect at a receptor. An agonist has both an affinity and efficacy whereas antagonist has affinity but not efficacy or intrinsic activity.
When a drug is able to stimulate a receptor, it is known as an agonist and therefore mimics the endogenous transmitter.
When the drug blocks a receptor, it is known as antagonist and therefore blocks the action of the endogenous transmitter (i.e. it will prevent the natural chemical from acting on the receptor).
However, as most drug binding is reversible, there will be competition between the drug and the natural stimulus to the receptor.

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes – PDF PPT – ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA
The forces that attract the drug to its receptor are termed chemical bonds and they are

(a)hydrogen bond

(b) ionic bond

(c) covalent bond

(d) Vander waals force.

Covalent bond is the strongest bond and the drug-receptor complex is usually irreversible.
K1 K3
DR Biological effect
D+R K2
Where D = Drug, R= receptor DR= Drug receptor complex (affinity)
K1 = association constant
K2 = dissociation constant
K3 = intrinsic activity
When first messengers like neurotransmitters, hormones, autacoids and most of drugs bind with their specific receptors, the drug receptor complex is formed which subsequently causes the synthesis and release of another intracellular regulatory molecule termed as second messengers e.g. cyclic AMP, calcium, cyclic GMP, inositol triphosphate (IP3), diacylglycerol and calmodulin which in turn produce subcellular or molecular mechanism of drug action.

B. Site of drug action:

– A drug may act:
(i) Extracellularly e.g: osmotic diuretics, plasma expanders.
(ii) On the cell surface e.g.: digitalis, penicillin, catecholamines
(iii) Inside the cell e.g.: anti-cancer drugs, steroid hormones.
C. Dose Response relationship
The exact relationship between the dose and the response depends on the biological object under observation and the drug employed.
When a logarithm of dose as abscissa and responses as ordinate are constructed graphically, the “S” shaped or sigmoid type curve is obtained.
The lowest concentration of a drug that elicits a response is minimal dose, and the largest concentration after which further increase in concentration will not change the response is the maximal dose.
1. Graded dose effect: As the dose administered to a single subject or tissue increases, the pharmacological response also increases in graded fashion up to ceiling effect.
– It is used for characterization of the action of drugs. The concentration that is required to produce 50 % of the maximum effect is termed as EC50 or ED50.50

2. Quantal dose effect: It is all or none response, the sensitive objects give response to small doses of a drug while some will be resistant and need very large doses. The quantal dose effect curve is often characterized by stating the median effective dose and the median lethal dose.
Median lethal dose or LD50: This is the dose (mg/kg), which would be expected to kill one half of a population of the same species and strain.
Median effective dose or ED50: This is the dose (mg/kg), which produces a desired response in 50 per cent of test population.
Therapeutic index: It is an approximate assessment of the safety of the drug. It is the ratio of the median lethal dose and the median effective dose. Also called as therapeutic window or safety.

The larger the therapeutic index, the safer is the drug. Penicillin has a very high therapeutic index, while it is much smaller for the digitalis preparation.

D. Structural activity relationship

The activity of a drug is intimately related to its chemical structure. Knowledge about the chemical structure of a drug is useful for:
(i) Synthesis of new compounds with more specific actions and fewer adverse reactions
(ii) Synthesis of competitive antagonist and
(iii) Understanding the mechanism of drug action.
Slight modification of structure of the compound can change the effect completely.

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Pharmacodynamics Examples:

Pharmacodynamics Basic Notes - PDF PPT - ATROPINE FUROSIMIDE HEPARIN BASTI VAMANA

Pharmacodynamics of atropine:

Atropine, a naturally occurring belladonna alkaloid, is a racemic mixture of equal parts of d- and l-hyoscyamine, whose activity is due almost entirely to the levo isomer of the drug. Atropine is commonly classified as an anticholinergic or antiparasympathetic (parasympatholytic) drug. More precisely, however, it is termed an antimuscarinic agent since it antagonizes the muscarine-like actions of acetylcholine and other choline esters. Adequate doses of atropine abolish various types of reflex vagal cardiac slowing or asystole. The drug also prevents or abolishes bradycardia or asystole produced by injection of choline esters, anticholinesterase agents or other parasympathomimetic drugs, and cardiac arrest produced by stimulation of the vagus. Atropine may also lessen the degree of partial heart block when vagal activity is an etiologic factor. Atropine in clinical doses counteracts the peripheral dilatation and abrupt decrease in blood pressure produced by choline esters. However, when given by itself, atropine does not exert a striking or uniform effect on blood vessels or blood pressure.

Pharmacodynamics of Furosemide

Furosemide, a sulfonamide-type loop diuretic structurally related to bumetanide, is used to manage hypertension and edema associated with congestive heart failure, cirrhosis, and renal disease, including the nephrotic syndrome.

Furosemide, a loop diuretic, inhibits water reabsorption in the nephron by blocking the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter (NKCC2) in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle. This is achieved through competitive inhibition at the chloride binding site on the cotransporter, thus preventing the transport of sodium from the lumen of the loop of Henle into the basolateral interstitium. Consequently, the lumen becomes more hypertonic while the interstitium becomes less hypertonic, which in turn diminishes the osmotic gradient for water reabsorption throughout the nephron. Because the thick ascending limb is responsible for 25% of sodium reabsorption in the nephron, furosemide is a very potent diuretic.

Pharmacodynamics of Heparin

Unfractionated heparin is a highly acidic mucopolysaccharide formed of equal parts of sulfated D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid with sulfaminic bridges. The molecular weight ranges from 3000 to 30,000 daltons. Heparin is obtained from liver, lung, mast cells, and other cells of vertebrates. Heparin is a well-known and commonly used anticoagulant which has antithrombotic properties. Heparin inhibits reactions that lead to the clotting of blood and the formation of fibrin clots both in vitro and in vivo. Small amounts of heparin in combination with antithrombin III, a heparin cofactor,) can inhibit thrombosis by inactivating Factor Xa and thrombin. Once active thrombosis has developed, larger amounts of heparin can inhibit further coagulation by inactivating thrombin and preventing the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. Heparin also prevents the formation of a stable fibrin clot by inhibiting the activation of the fibrin stabilizing factor. Heparin prolongs several coagulation tests. Of all the coagulation tests, activated partial prothrombin time (aPTT) is the most clinically important value.

Mechanism of action

Under normal circumstances, antithrombin III (ATIII) inactivates thrombin (factor IIa) and factor Xa. This process occurs at a slow rate. Administered heparin binds reversibly to ATIII and leads to almost instantaneous inactivation of factors IIa and Xa The heparin-ATIII complex can also inactivate factors IX, XI, XII and plasmin. The mechanism of action of heparin is ATIII-dependent. It acts mainly by accelerating the rate of the neutralization of certain activated coagulation factors by antithrombin, but other mechanisms may also be involved. The antithrombotic effect of heparin is well correlated to the inhibition of factor Xa. Heparin is not a thrombolytic or fibrinolytic. It prevents progression of existing clots by inhibiting further clotting. The lysis of existing clots relies on endogenous thrombolytics.

Pharmacodynamics of paracetamol
Pharmacodynamics of Acetaminophen

Acetaminophen (USAN) or Paracetamol (INN) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of fever, headaches, and other minor aches and pains. It is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu medications and many prescription analgesics. It is extremely safe in standard doses, but because of its wide availability, deliberate or accidental overdoses are not uncommon. Acetaminophen, unlike other common analgesics such as aspirin and ibuprofen, has no anti-inflammatory properties or effects on platelet function, and it is not a member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs. At therapeutic doses acetaminophen does not irritate the lining of the stomach nor affect blood coagulation, kidney function, or the fetal ductus arteriosus (as NSAIDs can). Like NSAIDs and unlike opioid analgesics, acetaminophen does not cause euphoria or alter mood in any way. Acetaminophen and NSAIDs have the benefit of being completely free of problems with addiction, dependence, tolerance and withdrawal. Acetaminophen is used on its own or in combination with pseudoephedrine, dextromethorphan, chlorpheniramine, diphenhydramine, doxylamine, codeine, hydrocodone, or oxycodone.

Mechanism of action:

Acetaminophen is thought to act primarily in the CNS, increasing the pain threshold by inhibiting both isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3 enzymes involved in prostaglandin (PG) synthesis. Unlike NSAIDs, acetaminophen does not inhibit cyclooxygenase in peripheral tissues and, thus, has no peripheral anti-inflammatory affects. While aspirin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of COX and directly blocks the enzyme’s active site, studies have found that acetaminophen indirectly blocks COX, and that this blockade is ineffective in the presence of peroxides. This might explain why acetaminophen is effective in the central nervous system and in endothelial cells but not in platelets and immune cells which have high levels of peroxides. Studies also report data suggesting that acetaminophen selectively blocks a variant of the COX enzyme that is different from the known variants COX-1 and COX-2. This enzyme is now referred to as COX-3. Its exact mechanism of action is still poorly understood, but future research may provide further insight into how it works. The antipyretic properties of acetaminophen are likely due to direct effects on the heat-regulating centres of the hypothalamus resulting in peripheral vasodilation, sweating and hence heat dissipation.

Pharmacodynamics of salbutamol

Salbutamol (INN) or albuterol (USAN), a moderately selective beta(2)-receptor agonist similar in structure to terbutaline, is widely used as a bronchodilator to manage asthma and other chronic obstructive airway diseases. The R-isomer, levalbuterol, is responsible for bronchodilation while the S-isomer increases bronchial reactivity. The R-enantiomer is sold in its pure form as Levalbuterol. The manufacturer of levalbuterol, Sepracor, has implied (although not directly claimed) that the presence of only the R-enantiomer produces fewer side-effects.

Mechanism of action:

Salbutamol is a beta(2)-adrenergic agonist and thus it stimulates beta(2)-adrenergic receptors. Binding of albuterol to beta(2)-receptors in the lungs results in relaxation of bronchial smooth muscles. It is believed that salbutamol increases cAMP production by activating adenylate cyclase, and the actions of salbutamol are mediated by cAMP. Increased intracellular cyclic AMP increases the activity of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A, which inhibits the phosphorylation of myosin and lowers intracellular calcium concentrations. A lowered intracellular calcium concentration leads to a smooth muscle relaxation and bronchodilation. In addition to bronchodilation, salbutamol inhibits the release of bronchoconstricting agents from mast cells, inhibits microvascular leakage, and enhances mucociliary clearance.

Pharmacodynamics of vamana

The overall Pharmacodynamic of Vamanopaga dasemāni drugs is based on guna concept. Most of the drugs (90%) are having property of Laghu and Ruksa guna. These are based on Vāyu, Agni and Ākasa mahābhaūtik (one of the five elements of the universe) composition. Ācarya Caraka has mentioned only the role of gunas in the  Pharmacodynamic of Vamana karma (Bhadanta Nāgārjunā, Rasavaisesika, 2010). In fact guna is the thing
which represents a drug. So, the selection of a drug should be on the basis of gunas for Vamana karma. 
Ācarya has mentioned predominance of Vāyu and Agni mahābhūta drugs for Vamana karma. Rasas (taste) of vamana dravyas are chiefly katu and kasāya rasa which are composition of the same mahābhūtas. Most of
drugs are katu Vipāka having similar bhaūtic constitution. Other drugs are supportive to the therapy or to avoid complications during Vamana karma. As an example; honey which is mentioned in Vamanopaga dasemāni is added
to Vamana kalpa (prepared medicine) for increasing the palatability and giving soothing effect. Āyurveda says it is a good kapha chedaka (expectorant), helps in better expulsion of malarūpī kapha by vamana karma. Likewise Saindhava (salt) should be added to Vamana kalpa for Vilāyana (Agnivesa, Caraka Samhita, 2001) (liquefying)
of sticky Kaphadosa in channels. Effect of both the drugs is to help in a comfortable and irritation less procedure. added to Vamana kalpa for Vilāyana (Agnivesa, Caraka Samhita, 2001) (liquefying) of sticky Kaphadosa in channels. Effect of both the drugs is to help in a comfortable and irritation less procedure.

Pharmacodynamics of basti

Basti is chief Panchakama procedure used in Ayurveda. The pharmacodynamics of systemic effect of Basti may be understood through absorption mechanism, concept of system biology, neural stimulation mechanism, and excretory mechanism. As Basti is homogenous emulsion mixture of Honey, Saindhava,Sneha Dravya, Kalka, and decoction of crude drugs and Prakshepa Dravya, which is given through rectum, is absorbed, hence Basti is used as route of drug administration. Through rectal route large quantity of drugs can be delivered for systemic circulation and act accordingly. Concept of system biology opines that a change at cellular level of a system can bring changes in tissue, organ and system and in another system consequently & finally in whole body. As per recent advancement intestine not only is highly vascular but also highly innervated organ which forms ‘Enteric Nervous System’ (ENS).ENS may works in synergism with Central Nervous System of body. The cleansing action of Basti is related with the facilitation of excretion of morbid substances responsible for the disease process into the colon, from where it is evacuated.

Basti being the most widely used and highly effective treatment modality in the Ayurveda, it is the prime subject of interest for modern scientific community. With this background the basic question which comes forward regarding Basti is, “do active principles of drugs used in Basti get absorbed in systemic circulation. Triphaladi decoction Basti containing biomarker gallic acid and after Basti they traced it in the circulation. The rectum has rich blood and lymph supply and drugs can cross the rectal mucosa like other lipid membrane. Thus unionised and lipid soluble
substances are readily absorbed from the rectal mucosa. Small quantity of short chain fatty acid fatty acids, such as those from butterfat are absorbed directly into portal blood rather than being converted into triglycerides. This is because short chain fatty acids are more water soluble and allow direct diffusion from the epithelial cells into
capillary blood of villi. However decoction Basti gets a very little time maximum 48 minutes  to absorb from colon and rectum how so ever these areas have very large surface area and highly vascular needed for absorption. Retention time for Anuvashana Basti is relatively more so probability of absorption also increases. Anuvasana Basti
after reaching in the rectum and colon causes secretion of bile from gall bladder which leads to the formation of conjugate micelles which is absorbed through passive diffusion. Especially short chain fatty acid present in Sneha of
Anuvasana Basti may absorb from colon and large intestine part of gastrointestinal tract and break the pathology of disease. In Basti Karma, a homogenous emulsion

2) By System Biology Concept of Honey, Saindhava, Sneha Dravya, Kalka, and decoction mixed in remarkable combination after proper churning (break the large and middle chain fatty acid into small chain fatty acids) is given which facilitates absorption better then a single drug per rectum. In Ayurveda classics, various Basti Dravya are
mentioned in diverse proportion in different diseases, it again confirms pharmacodynamics of Basti through absorption mechanism

Pharmacodynamics of phenytoin

Phenytoin is an antiepileptic drug which can be useful in the treatment of epilepsy. The primary site of action appears to be the motor cortex where spread of seizure activity is inhibited. Phenytoin reduces the maximal activity of brain stem centers responsible for the tonic phase of tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures. Phenytoin acts to dampen the unwanted, runaway brain activity seen in seizure by reducing electrical conductance among brain cells. It lacks the sedation effects associated with phenobarbital. There are some indications that phenytoin has other effects, including anxiety control and mood stabilization, although it has never been approved for those purposes by the FDA. Phenytoin is primarily metabolized by CYP2C9.

Mechanism of action

Phenytoin acts on sodium channels on the neuronal cell membrane, limiting the spread of seizure activity and reducing seizure propagation. By promoting sodium efflux from neurons, phenytoin tends to stabilize the threshold against hyperexcitability caused by excessive stimulation or environmental changes capable of reducing membrane sodium gradient. This includes the reduction of post-tetanic potentiation at synapses. Loss of post-tetanic potentiation prevents cortical seizure foci from detonating adjacent cortical areas.

Pharmacodynamics of Aspirin

Acetylsalicylic acid is an analgesic, antipyretic, antirheumatic, and anti-inflammatory agent. Acetylsalicylic acid’s mode of action as an antiinflammatory and antirheumatic agent may be due to inhibition of synthesis and release of prostaglandins. Acetylsalicylic acid appears to produce analgesia by virtue of both a peripheral and CNS effect. Peripherally, acetylsalicylic acid acts by inhibiting the synthesis and release of prostaglandins. Acting centrally, it would appear to produce analgesia at a hypothalamic site in the brain, although the mode of action is not known. Acetylsalicylic acid also acts on the hypothalamus to produce antipyresis; heat dissipation is increased as a result of vasodilation and increased peripheral blood flow. Acetylsalicylic acid’s antipyretic activity may also be related to inhibition of synthesis and release of prostaglandins.

Mechanism of action:

The analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory effects of acetylsalicylic acid are due to actions by both the acetyl and the salicylate portions of the intact molecule as well as by the active salicylate metabolite. Acetylsalicylic acid directly and irreversibly inhibits the activity of both types of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) to decrease the formation of precursors of prostaglandins and thromboxanes from arachidonic acid. This makes acetylsalicylic acid different from other NSAIDS (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen) which are reversible inhibitors. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Acetylsalicylic acid’s antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms; the therapeutic effects are not due to pituitary-adrenal stimulation. The platelet aggregation-inhibiting effect of acetylsalicylic acid specifically involves the compound’s ability to act as an acetyl donor to cyclooxygenase; the nonacetylated salicylates have no clinically significant effect on platelet aggregation. Irreversible acetylation renders cyclooxygenase inactive, thereby preventing the formation of the aggregating agent thromboxane A2 in platelets. Since platelets lack the ability to synthesize new proteins, the effects persist for the life of the exposed platelets (7-10 days). Acetylsalicylic acid may also inhibit production of the platelet aggregation inhibitor, prostacyclin (prostaglandin I2), by blood vessel endothelial cells; however, inhibition prostacyclin production is not permanent as endothelial cells can produce more cyclooxygenase to replace the non-functional enzyme.

Pharmacodynamics of pantaprazole

Pantoprazole is a substituted benzimidazole indicated for the short-term treatment (up to 16 weeks) in the healing and symptomatic relief of erosive esophagitis. Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) that suppresses the final step in gastric acid production.

Mechanism of action:

Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) that suppresses the final step in gastric acid production by forming a covalent bond to two sites of the (H+,K+ )- ATPase enzyme system at the secretory surface of the gastric parietal cell. This effect is dose- related and leads to inhibition of both basal and stimulated gastric acid secretion irrespective of the stimulus.

Pharmacology Text Books Lists: D Pharm B Pharm Medical Students Top 10 Pharmacology Books

Hello readers in this article “List of Pharmacology & Toxicology Books” we provide Top 10 best rated Pharmacology Books along with Author Name which are bestselling Pharmacology textbooks in the current market. We provide Best Pharmacology Books Every Student Should Know to understand the subject in a proper and interactive way.

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What is Pharmacology:

Pharmacology is the study of interaction of drugs with living organisms. It also includes history, source, physicochemical properties, dosage forms, methods of administration, absorption, distribution mechanism of action, biotransformation, excretion, clinical uses and adverse effects of drugs. Pharmacology is both a basic and an applied science. It forms the backbone of rational therapeutics.Whereas the medical student and the prescribing physician are primarily concerned with the applied aspects, correct and skillful application of drugs is impossible without a proper understanding of their basic pharmacology. Medical  pharmacology, therefore, must include both fundamental background and clinical pharmacological information. Objective and quantitative data on the use of drugs in man, i.e., relationship between plasma concentration and intensity of therapeutic/toxic actions, plasma half lives, relative efficacy of different medications and incidence of adverse effects etc., are being obtained with the aim of optimising drug therapy. The concepts regarding mechanism
of action of drugs are changing. In addition, new drugs are being introduced in different countries at an explosive pace. A plethora of information thus appears to be important.

Here is a overview of General Pharmacology Text Books:

Section 1
General Pharmacological Principles
1. Introduction, Routes of Drug Administration
2. Pharmacokinetics: Membrane Transport, Absorption and Distribution of Drugs
3. Pharmacokinetics: Metabolism and Excretion of Drugs, Kinetics of Elimination
4. Pharmacodynamics: Mechanism of Drug Action; Receptor Pharmacology
5. Aspects of Pharmacotherapy, Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Development
6. Adverse Drug Effects 82
Section 2
Drugs Acting on Autonomic Nervous System
7a. Autonomic Nervous System: General Considerations
7b. Cholinergic System and Drugs 99
8. Anticholinergic Drugs and Drugs Acting on Autonomic Ganglia
9. Adrenergic System and Drugs
10. Antiadrenergic Drugs (Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists) and
Drugs for Glaucoma

Section 3
Autacoids and Related Drugs
11. Histamine and Antihistaminics
2. 5-Hydroxytryptamine, its Antagonists and Drug Therapy of Migraine
13. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes (Eicosanoids) and Platelet Activating Factor
14. Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs and Antipyretic-Analgesics
15. Antirheumatoid and Antigout Drugs
Section 4
Respiratory System Drugs
16. Drugs for Cough and Bronchial Asthma
Section 5
Hormones and Related Drugs
17a. Introduction
17b. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
18. Thyroid Hormone and Thyroid Inhibitors
19. Insulin, Oral Hypoglycaemic Drugs and Glucagon
20. Corticosteroids 282
21. Androgens and Drugs for Erectile Dysfunction
22. Estrogens, Progestins and Contraceptives
23. Oxytocin and Other Drugs Acting on Uterus
24. Drugs Affecting Calcium Balance
Section 6
Drugs Acting on Peripheral (Somatic)
Nervous System
25. Skeletal Muscle Relaxants
26. Local Anaesthetics
Section 7
Drugs Acting on Central Nervous System
27. General Anaesthetics
28. Ethyl and Methyl Alcohols
29. Sedative-Hypnotics
30. Antiepileptic Drugs
31. Antiparkinsonian Drugs
32. Drugs Used in Mental Illness: Antipsychotic and Antimanic Drugs
33. Drugs Used in Mental Illness: Antidepressant and Antianxiety Drugs 454
34. Opioid Analgesics and Antagonists 469
35. CNS Stimulants and Cognition Enhancers 486

Section 8
Cardiovascular Drugs
36a. Cardiac Electrophysiological Considerations
36b. Drugs Affecting Renin-Angiotensin System and Plasma Kinins
37. Cardiac Glycosides and Drugs for Heart Failure 512
38. Antiarrhythmic Drugs 526
39. Antianginal and Other Anti-ischaemic Drugs
40. Antihypertensive Drugs 558
Section 9
Drugs Acting on Kidney
41a. Relevant Physiology of Urine Formation
41b. Diuretics 579
42. Antidiuretics 593
Section 10
Drugs Affecting Blood and Blood Formation
43. Haematinics and Erythropoietin 599
44. Drugs Affecting Coagulation, Bleeding and Thrombosis
45. Hypolipidaemic Drugs and Plasma Expanders 634
Section 11
Gastrointestinal Drugs
46. Drugs for Peptic Ulcer and Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
47. Antiemetic, Prokinetic and Digestant Drugs
48. Drugs for Constipation and Diarrhoea 672
Section 12
Antimicrobial Drugs
49. Antimicrobial Drugs: General Considerations
50. Sulfonamides, Cotrimoxazole and Quinolones
51. Beta-Lactam Antibiotics 716

52. Tetracyclines and Chloramphenicol (Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics)
53. Aminoglycoside Antibiotics 743
54. Macrolide, Lincosamide, Glycopeptide and Other Antibacterial Antibiotics;
Urinary Antiseptics 752
55. Antitubercular Drugs
56. Antileprotic Drugs
57. Antifungal Drugs
58. Antiviral Drugs
59. Antimalarial Drugs
60. Antiamoebic and Other Antiprotozoal Drugs
61. Anthelmintic Drugs 849
Section 13
Chemotherapy of Neoplastic Diseases
62. Anticancer Drugs 857
Section 14
Miscellaneous Drugs
63. Immunosuppressant Drugs
64. Drugs Acting on Skin and Mucous Membranes
65. Antiseptics, Disinfectants and Ectoparasiticides
66. Chelating Agents 905
67. Vitamins 909
68. Vaccines and Sera
69. Drug Interactions

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General Pharmacology Textbooks will help B Pharm M Pharm D Pharm and medical students to:

1. Define various terminologies used in Pharmacology.
2. Know about nature and sources of drugs.
3. Understand pharmacodynamics like mechanism of drug action, dose relation ship and pharmacokinetics like absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) of drugs.
4. Understand theoritical pharmacokinetics like half-life, order of kinetics, steady state plasma concentration.
5. Understand drug safety and effectiveness like factors affecting drug action and adverse drug reactions.
6. Understand new drug development and evaluation

List Of Pharmacology & Toxicology Books:

Pharmacology & Toxicology Books

List of Pharmacology Text Books Pharmacology Text Books For Pharmacy Medical Dentist Students
Pharmacology Text Books For B Pharmacy Pharmacology Text Books For M Pharmacy Pharmacology Text Books For D Pharmacy Pharmacology Text Books For Pharmd Pharmacology Text Books For Medicos Pharmacology Text Books For Medical Students

Pharmacology Text Books For B Pharmacy

Kd-Tripathi-Essentials-Of-Medical-Pharmacology

Rang & Dale’s Pharmacology- 7th Edition

Pharmacology: Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews

Pharmacology Text Books For M Pharmacy:

Kd-Tripathi-Essentials-Of-Medical-Pharmacology

Rang & Dale’s Pharmacology- 7th Edition

Pharmacology: Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews

Goodman & Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics

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Kd-Tripathi-Essentials-Of-Medical-Pharmacology

Rang & Dale’s Pharmacology- 7th Edition

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Kd-Tripathi-Essentials-Of-Medical-Pharmacology

) Pharmacology: Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews

2) USMLE Road Map – Pharmacology

3) Katzung’s Pharmacology: Examination and Board Review

4) Kaplan Lecture Notes: Pharmacology

5) Pharmacology Brenner

6) Pharmacology: PreTest Self-Assessment and Review

7) Elsevier’s Integrated Pharmacology

8) Lecture Notes on Clinical Pharmacology

9) Pharmcards

10) Pharmacology – Oklahoma Notes

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D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem – Anatomy & Physiology Notes – Solved Question Paper

Lymph node D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem - Anatomy & Physiology Notes

Here is a great article for our readers especially D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem students who are struggling to learn Anatomy & Physiology Subjects. Hence we provide Notes as Solved Question Paper which are very important for your examinations.

Give functions of mitochondria & endoplasmic reticulum. (1 mark each)

 Mitochondria is known as power house of cell. They are involved in cellular respiration, the process by which chemical energy is made available in the cell. When nutrients and oxygen come in contact with the oxidative enzymes of mitochondria, they combine to form CO2, water & energy, this is in the form of ATP. (aerobic oxidation)

  • Endoplasmic reticulum are of two types. Smooth and rough. Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and steroid hormones and associated with detoxification of drugs. Rough ER is studded with ribosomes. It is a site of synthesis of proteins that are exported from

b)  Define tissue. Classify connective tissue. (def. 1 mark, classification 1 mark)

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Groups of cells which have the same physical characteristics and similar functions are termed as tissues.

Classification of connective tissue:

  1. Connective tissue proper: i) Areolar tissu ii) Adipose tissue

        iii) White fibrous tissue     iv) Yellow elastic tissue

  1. Specialised connective tissue:         i) Bone ii) Cartilage
  1. Vascular tissue:       i) Blood                             ii) Lymphoid tissue

c)  What are true ribs & false ribs? ( 2 marks)

 There are 12 pairs of ribs. Anteriorly, the first seven pairs of ribs are attached to the sternum via costal cartilage & are known as true ribs. The next three ribs are attached indirectly via seventh rib & known as false ribs

d)  Write composition of blood. (2 marks)

 

Composition

It is composed of a liquid matrix plasma (55%) & different cells suspended in it (45%).

Plasma- CompositionWater-90-92%, plasma proteins, inorganic salts, nutrients, waste material, hormones & gases.

Blood cells – Red blood cells or erythrocytes, white blood cells or leucocytes and platelets or thrombocytes

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e)  Draw and label lymph node 

Lymph node D Pharmacy 1st Year B Pharm First Sem - Anatomy & Physiology Notes

 

f)  What is SA node & AV node? (1 mark each)

 

SA node (sinoatrial node) This is small mass of specialized neuromuscular cells in the walls of myocardium of right atrium near the opening of the superior vena cava. It is known as pacemaker of the heart as it initiates the impulses.

 AV node- (atrioventricular node): This is the mass of neuromuscular cells in the wall of the atrial septum near the AV valves. Normally it conducts the impulses that are originated by SA node. It is known as secondary pace maker as it generates the impulses when there is problem with SA node.

g)  Give the functions of CSF. (4 functions, 2 marks)

  1. To support & protect brain & spinal
  1. Maintain uniform pressure around
  1. Acts as cushion & shock absorber
  1. Keeps brain & spinal cord

h)  Define (any two) (each 1 mark)

 Presbyopia: As a process of aging, the lens loses its elasticity; the distant objects are seen clear but close objects are

  1. Cataract: This is opacity of lens which may be age related or congenital bilateral or unilateral.
  • Hypermetropia: Also known as farsightedness. Far vision is normal but close vision is blurred, because the near image is focused behind the retina as eye ball length is too short or due to flattened

                                                                            

i)   Write the functions of hypothalamus. ( 2 marks)

 

  1. It controls the hormone release from pituitary
  1. Control of autonomic nervous system, appetite & satiety, thirst, body , emotions, sexual behavior & biological clock.

j)  Name any two cranial nerves with their function. (Any 2, 2 marks)

 

Olfactory –                                       sense of smell

Optic  –                                          sense of light/vision

Occulomotor –                                 movement of the eyeball, change shape of lens, Constriction of pupil, raising the upper lid.

Trochlear –                                       movement of the eye

Trigeminal –                                    receives impulses of pain temp. & touch for face & head, stimulates muscle of mastication

Abducent –                                      abduction of eye ball

Facial –                                          conveys impulse from taste buds & supplies muscles of facial expression

Auditory (vestibulocochlear) –      conveys impulses to the cerebellum for posture &

Balance & sense of hearing

Glossopharyngeal –                       Sense of taste, production of saliva and movement of

Pharynx

Vagus –                                         Secretion, movement in organs

Accessory –                                  Movements of head, shoulder, pharynx and larynx

Hypoglossal –                              Supplies to the muscle of tongue & muscle surrounding the hyoid bone & helps in swallowing & speech.

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k)  What are auditory ossicles? (1 mark) Write their function. (1 mark)

Auditory ossicles: Malleus, incus & stapes are the three small bones in the middle ear extending from tympanic membrane to the oval window. Sound vibrations of tympanic membrane are amplified & transmitted by these bones.

l)  What is B.P.? Name the factors affecting B.P. (def 1 mark and any 4 factors 1 mark)

B.P is the force or lateral pressure which the blood exerts on the wall of blood vessels. Factors affecting B.P. are exercise, nutrition, age, stress, circulating hormones, autonomic nervous system activity.

Q2.  Solve any four of the following:                                                          12

  1. Define respiration. Write the process of external respiration. (def 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Respiration is a process of supply of oxygen present in atmosphere into the body & excretion for carbon dioxide.

External respiration- (cycle of breathing)

The normal human has 12-15 breath per min. Each breath consists of inspiration, expiration & pause.

Inspiration: The simultaneous contraction of intercostal muscles & diaphragm increases the capacity of thoracic cavity. This reduces the pressure in the lungs. To equalise the pressure the air from atmosphere enters the lungs. The process of inspiration is active as it needs energy for muscle contraction. It lasts for 2 sec.

Expiration: Relaxation of intercostal muscles & diaphragm results in decrease in the space in the lungs. As a result, the pressure inside the lungs increases as compared to atmospheric pressure. The air from the lungs is expelled from the lungs. This process is passive as does not require energy. The expiration lasts for 3 sec. After expiration there is pause & then the next cycle begins.

                                                                           

b) Write steps involved in urine formation. Describe selective reabsorption. (steps 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

There are three processes of urine formation:

  1. Glomerular filtration
  2. Selective reabsorption
  3. Tubular secretion.

Selective reabsorption:

Selective reabsorption is the process by which the composition and volume of the glomerular filtrate is altered during its passage through the convoluted tubules, Loop of Henle and the collecting tubule. The purpose of this process is to reabsorb those constituents of the filtrate which are essential to the body, maintain the fluid and electrolyte balance and the alkalinity of blood.

Some constituents of the glomerular filtrate e.g. glucose; vitamins and amino acids get completely reabsorbed into the blood. These substances are called high- threshold substances.

Low-threshold substances like urea, uric acid are absorbed slightly.

Some substances e.g. creatinine are not at all absorbed.(no-threshold substances) Parathormone from parathyroid gland & calcitonin from thyroid gland regulate reabsorption of calcium & phosphate,

ADH from posterior pituitary increases the permeability of the tubule & increases water reabsorption.

Aldosterone by adrenal cortex increases reabsorption of sodium.

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c)What is muscle tone? Give the functions of muscle. (muscle tone 1 mark, functions 2 marks)

Muscle tone is a sustained partial muscle contraction that allows maintenance of posture of the body.

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Functions of the muscles are-

Skeletal muscles contract & help the movement of the body & stability of the joint. It also helps in generation of heat.Intercostal muscles help in respiration.

  • Smooth muscles helps contraction & relaxation of blood vessels & controls blood flow & movement of the food in the alimentary
  • Cardiac muscles help in the functioning of

d)Give the composition & function of gastric juice. (comp. 1 mark, functions 2 marks)

Composition of gastric juice:

Water, mineral salt, mucus, HCl, intrinsic factor, pepsinogen Functions of gastric juice-

  1. Water liquifies the food.
  2. HCl acidifies the food & stops the action of salivary
  3. HCl kills the
  4. Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by HCl. This digests protein to smaller
  5. Intrinsic factor absorbs vit. B12 from small
  6. Mucus prevents mechanical injury to the stomach

e)              Name hormones of adrenal cortex & mention their functions. (names 1 mark, functions 2 marks)

Adrenal cortex produces three groups of hormones namely glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoid & androgens.

Glucocorticoids: Cortisol or hydrocortisone is the main glucocorticoid. Others are corticosterone & cortisone.

They regulate metabolism like gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone.) It regulates water & electrolyte balance. It increases the reabsorption of Na ions.

Androgens: The compounds secreted are insignificant to show any action.

                                                                             

f) Define reproduction. Name the different reproductive organs of male reproductive system. (def 1 mark, organs 2 marks)

Reproduction is the process of formation of offspring OR It is defined as process by which genetic material is passed from one generation to another & thus maintains continuation of species.

The male reproductive system consists of the following organs:

Testis            2 Epididymis 2 Spermatic cords 2
Seminal vesicles 2 Ejaculatory ducts 2 Prostate gland 1
Urethra & Penis 1

Q3.  Solve any four of the following:                                                          12

  1. Give differences between striated and smooth muscles. (any 6 points, 3 marks)
Sr. No Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle
1. It is also known as striated Muscle Non‐ striated muscle
2. It is less extensible It is more extensible
3. The fibres (cell) are cylindrical and has

many nuclei

The cells are spindle shaped

with only one central nucleus

4. They are under the control of our will. (voluntary) They are not under the

control of our will.(involuntary)

5. The fibrous tissue enclosing

the whole muscle extends beyond the fibres to become the tendon which attaches the muscle to the bone or skin.

Bundles of fibres form sheets of muscle.
6. There is distinct sarcolemma No distinct sarcolemma
7. Present in tongue, arms or hands, legs,

etc

Present in oesophagus, stomach,

intestine, etc

 

                                                                            

b)             Define: ( 1 mark each)

 

  1. Gout: Inflammation of joints due to deposition of sodium urate crystals in the joints.
  2. Arthritis: Chronic disease that results in pain and restricted movement of
  • Sprain: Joint injury in which some of the fibres of supporting ligament are damaged OR If a ligament is stretched or torn; the injury is called a

c)              Name different type of blood group. Explain the term universal donor and universal recipient. (name 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Different blood groups are: A, B, AB and O

Blood group “O” is called as Universal donor and Blood group “AB” is called as

Universal recipient.

Individuals have different antigens on the surface of their RBCs. These antigens determine their blood groups.

Blood group ‘O’ has neither A nor B antigen on their cell membrane. There will be no agglutination and thus blood can be safely transfused into A, B, AB and O. but can receive from only O.Therefore, blood group O is called universal donor.

Whereas blood group AB has neither antiA nor antiB antibodies. Transfusion of any group into these individuals is safe since there are no antibodies to react with them. But can donate only to AB. Hence it is called as universal recipient.

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d)             Define cardiac cycle. Write various events in cardiac cycle. (def 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Cardiac cycle: The events which occur in the heart during the circulation of blood during each heart beat is called cardiac cycle OR The series of events during one heart beat is known as cardiac cycle.

Events in cardiac cycle:

  • Atrial systole (0.1 sec)
  • Ventricular systole (0.3 sec)
  • Complete cardiac diastole (0.4 sec)

Description of cardiac cycle (2 marks)

The superior & inferior vena cava transport the deoxygenated blood into right atrium. At the same time four pulmonary veins transport oxygenated blood into the left atrium. The impulses from the SA node spreads over the atria, atria contracts, the AV valves open and & blood flows to ventricles. ( atrial systole-0.1 sec)

When the wave of contraction reaches AV node, it is stimulated & emits impulses which spreads over AV bundle, bundle branches & purkinje fibres resulting in contraction of ventricles pumping the blood into pulmonary artery & the aorta. (ventricular systole 0.3 sec). After the contraction of the ventricles there is complete cardiac diastole(0.4 sec) when both atria & ventricles relax. After this the next cycle begins.

e)   What is reflex action? Draw a well-labelled diagram of reflex arc. (Reflex action 1 ½ marks, diagram 1 ½ marks)

Reflex action is an automatic motor response given by the spinal cord to the sensory stimulus without involving brain in action. They are a part of defensive mechanisms of the body.

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Important reflex actions are:

  1. Quick closing of an eyelid if eye is
  2. Sudden withdrawal of hand if fingers touch something
  3. Quick recovery of the balance of the body to prevent falling after a
  4. Sudden coughing attack if a food particle is

Diagram of reflex arc:

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f)                Mention layers of epidermis of skin. State functions of skin. ( names of layers 1 mark, any 4 functions 2 marks)

Layers of epidermis:

Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum and stratum granulosum & stratum germinativum Functions of skin:

  1. Protection – It forms the water proof layer & protects the inner delicate structures. It acts as the barrier against the invasion of the microbes, chemicals &dehydration. The melanin pigment protects against the harmful UV
  2. Regulation of body temp.- The temp. is constant at 36.8o When the metabolic rate of the body increases the body temp increases & vice versa. To ensure constant body temp, a balance between heat production & heat loss is maintained by the skin.
  3. Formation of vit. D.- 7-dehydroxycholesterol is present in the skin. The UV light from the sun converts it to vit.
  4. Sensation – It contains nerve endings of many sensory nerves which act as organ of sensation of touch, temp, pressure and
  5. Absorption- Some drugs & chemicals are absorbed through the
  6. Excretion- Skin is a minor excretory organ & excretes NaCl, urea & sub. like garlic.

Q4.  Solve any four of the following:                                                          12

  1. Define and give normal values: (1 mark for each)
  2. Tidal volume: It is the volume of air moved in & out of lungs during normal breathing. Normal value is 500

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  1. Inspiratory reserve volume: It is the amount of air that can be breathed in and above the tidal volume by the deepest possible inspiration. Normal value is 1800 – 3000
  • Residual volume: It is the volume of air remaining in lungs after forced Normal value is 1.2 L in males and 1.1 L in females.

  Give physiology of neuromuscular transmission. ( 3 marks)

When a nerve impulse reaches neuromuscular junction, passage of action potential over the sole feet causes the vesicles of acetylcholine to rupture into the synaptic cleft. The acetylcholine acts on the cell membrane to increase its permeability.

This allows spontaneous leakage of Na causing endplate potential. When the endplate potential increases, it stimulates the entire muscle fibre causing an action potential to travel in both directions along the fibre. When the action potential spread to inside of muscle fibre then Ca ions are released. This causes contraction of muscle fibres. Immediately after action potential is over, the previously released Ca ions recombine with reticulum and the muscle contraction stops.

The enzyme acetylcholinesterase present in the synaptic cleft.  causes hydrolysis of acetylcholine. The muscle fibre is repolaised again to receive successive stimuli.

d)             Describe the structure of stomach. ( str 2 marks, diag 1 mark)

 Stomach is a J-shaped dilated portion of the alimentary canal. It is continuous with the oesophagus at cardiac sphincter and with duodenum at pyloric sphincter. It has 2 curvatures – lesser curvature and greater curvature. The stomach is divided into three regions- fundus, body & antrum. There are three layers of smooth muscle fibres outer longitudinal, the middle circular layer & the inner oblique fibres. This helps the churning movement & peristaltic movement.

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Diagram

:

e)              What is endocrine and exocrine gland? Name the endocrine glands. (each def 1 mark, any 4 endocrine glands 1 mark)

Endocrine glands are ductless glands which release their secretions (hormones) directly into the blood.

Exocrine gland: The glands that discharge their secretions through the duct are known as exocrine glands.

Endocrine glands: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas (islets of Langerhans). adrenal glands, pineal gland, testes in male and ovaries in female.

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f)                Define menstruation. Explain proliferative phase of menstruation.(def 1 mark, explanation 2 marks)

Menstruation: This is the series of events occurring regularly in females every 26-30 days throughout the child bearing age. The cycle consists of menstrual phase for 4 days, proliferative phase for 10 days & secretary phase for 14 days.

Proliferative phase: It is characterized by release of oestrogen by the maturing ovarian follicle under the influence of FSH from the anterior pituitary. Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium in preparation of the fertilized ovum. The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication and this is accompanied by an increase in the number of mucus-secreting glands and blood capillaries. This phase lasts for 10 days and stops when ovulation occurs and oestrogen production is inhibited i.e. when the ovarian follicle ruptures.

Q.5  Solve any four of the following:        (12 marks, 03 marks each)

 

  1. State the factors which accelerate and retard the clotting of blood. (3 marks, 1.5 marks each)

There are various factors which accelerate and retard the clotting of blood.

(1)   Factors accelerating clotting are( any 3 points, 1.5 marks)

 

  • During menstruation and parturition
  • Injury to the walls of the blood vessels: An injury in the form of cut bleeds more freely than the injury by the
  • The venom of viper snakes
  • Higher temperature (above 46 0 C)
  • Presence of calcium salts

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(2)   Factors retarding clotting are (any 3 points, 1.5 marks):

  • In clinical condition like haemophilia, liver disease, afibrinogenemia, Christmas disease,
  • Removal calcium ions from the blood by addition of sodium or potassium or citrate

ions.

(c ) Calcium deficiency in blood

(d)Lower temperature: However, lower temperature causes contraction of blood vessels. ( e)Deficiency of vitamin K

(b)   Describe how circulation of blood takes place through heart chambers. (3 marks)

 

The superior vena cava (for upper body) and inferior vena cava (for lower body) receive deoxygenated /impure blood from various part of the body through different veins. This deoxygenated/ impure blood they pour into the right atrium of heart. The blood from right atrium enters the right ventricle through a tricuspid valve, which prevent back flow of blood from ventricle into atrium.

The deoxygenated/ impure blood from right ventricle is forced into pulmonary artery through pulmonary valve. The pulmonary arteries divide into two branches each enters the right and left lungs. In the lungs, the red blood cells (RBCs) release carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. This oxygenated blood from right and left lungs is collected by four pulmonary veins and poured into left atrium. From left atrium this blood enters into left ventricle through bicuspid valve which prevents back flow of blood into left atrium.This oxygenated blood from left ventricle is forced into the aorta through aortic valve which prevent back flow of blood into left ventricle.

  • Give the various functions of medulla oblongata. (03 marks, 1mark for each function The vital centres consisting of group of cells associated with autonomic reflex activity lie in Medulla oblongata. They are,

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  • Cardiac centre– The cardiac centre controls the rate and force of cardiac contraction and blood
  • Respiratory centre – The respiratory centre controls the rate and depth of respiration. Nerve impulses pass to the phrenic and intercostal muscles which stimulate the contraction of diaphragm and intercostal muscles, thus initiating
  • Vasomotor centre – This controls the diameter of blood vessels especially small arteries and arterioles.
  • Reflex centre – When irritating substance are present in stomach or respiratory tract, nerve impulse pass on to the medulla oblongata stimulating the reflex centre which initiate reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing and

(d)   Explain retina of eye. (3marks)

 

  • Retina is the innermost layer of the eye. It gets stimulated by the light rays. It is composed of several layers of nerve cell body & the axons. There are light sensitive cells mainly of two types: the rods and
  • The entire retina contains about 7 million cones and 75 to 150 million
  • Rods function mainly in dim light and provide black-and-white vision, The rods have rhodopsin or visual purple is photosensitive pigment. It gets bleached with light & gets regenerated by vit. A. The rods are present more in the periphery of the
  • Cones sensitive to bright light & colour. cone opsins (also known as photopsins or iodopsin) present in cone cells, are used in colour
  • The central retina has macula lutea or yellow spot made up of only cone cells. It has central depression called fovea centralis.All the nerve fibres of retina form the optic nerve. The small area of the retina where the optic nerve leave the eye is known as optic disc or blind spot as no light sensitive cells are present here.

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(e)  Define nephritis. Give function of kidney. (Definition 1 mark, any 4 functions 2 marks)

 

Nephritis: Nephritis refers to inflammation of one or both kidneys due to infection or autoimmune disease.

Functions of kidney are:

  1. Formation of urine –Each kidney consist of nephron which filter waste product from blood & helps in urine ,
  2. Maintenance of acid base balance it helps maintaining pH by excretion of H+ ions & reabsorption of HCO3
  3. Maintenance of electrolyte balance
  4. Maintenance of blood pressure. it regulates B.P. by Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone system
  5. Maintenance of water Balance.it helps in maintaining water balance with the help of
  6. Formation of erythropoietin hormone for erythropoeisis

(f)  Define (3 marks, 1 mark for each definition)

 

  1. Mastication: It is the process by which food is chewed and mixed with saliva to form a soft mass or bolus which is swallowed. OR Mastication means chewing process takes place in mouth cavity.
  2. Chyme: The thick semisolid mass of partially digested food that is passed from the stomach to the
  3. ii) Digestion: The conversion of complex food ( carbohydrate , proteins & fats) into simpler form (glucose, amino acids & fatty acid) by mechanical breakdown & chemical digestion so that it is easily absorbed into the blood and utilized for energy.

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Q.6  Solve any four of the following: (16 marks, 4 marks each)

 

  • State eight (8) functions of liver. (0.5 marks for each function)

 

Functions of liver

  1. Secretion of bile: Bile salts are helpful in digestion and absorption of fats by its emulsification.
  2. Glycogenic function: The hepatic cells by the action of enzymes convert glucose into glycogen and it is then stored in the
  3. Formation of urea: Hepatic cells by the action of the enzyme cause deamination of amino acid, i.e. amine group is set free which forms
  4. Metabolism of fat: Whenever energy is needed, the saturated stored fat is converted to a form in which it can be used to provide
  5. Formation of RBCs in foetal
  6. Destruction of RBCs forming bile pigments and
  7. Formation of plasma
  8. Formation of heparin, a natural anticoagulant in the
  9. Storage of iron and vitamin B
  10. Maintenance of body temperature: As a number of chemical reactions occur in the liver, heat is generated which is helpful in maintaining body
  11. Excretion of toxic substances: The toxic substances entering the body through alimentary canal are destroyed in

OR

 

 

 

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  1. Carbohydrate metabolism: It helps in maintaining plasma glucose level with the help of insulin &
  2. Fat metabolism: Stored fat can be converted to a form in which it can be used by the tissue to provide
  • Protein metabolism: Deamination of amino -removes nitrogenous portion from amino acid not required for formation of new protein. Urea is formed from the nitrogenous portion which is excreted in urine. Break down of nucleic acids to form uric acid which is excreted in urine. Transamination: Removes the nitrogenous portion of amino acid & attaches it to carbohydrate molecule forming new non-essential amino acid. .
  1. Synthesis of plasma protein & most blood clotting factors from amino
  2. Breakdown of RBCs & defense against This is carried out by Kupffer cells.
  3. Detoxification of drugs & noxious
  • Inactivation of hormones
  • Production of heat
  1. Secretion of bile
  2. Storage of glycogen, iron, copper, & water fat soluble vit-A, D,E, K, soluble vit. Like B12.

(b)      What is hepatic portal circulation? Give its importance. (4marks; circulation 3 marks, importance 1 mark)

The portal circulation (3 marks)

In all parts of the body, the venous blood passes from the tissues to the heart by the direct route.

But, in the portal circulation, venous blood from the capillary bed of the abdominal parts, the spleen & the pancreas passes to the liver via the portal vein. The portal vein is formed by union of gastric vein from stomach, superior & inferior mesenteric veins from small and large intestine, splenic vein from spleen & cystic vein from gall bladder. The blood

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passes through the secondary capillary bed, the hepatic sinusoid in the liver before entering the general circulation via the inferior vena cava.

Importance of portal circulation (1mark)

Blood with the high concentration of nutrients absorbed from the stomach & intestine goes to liver first. In the liver certain modifications takes place including the blood nutrient level. The venous blood then leaves liver via hepatic vein & joins the inferior vena cava.

(c)      State functions of Semen and Placenta (4 marks, 2 marks each) Functions of Semen: (2 marks)

  1. Increase motility and fertility of spermatozoa.

 

  1. Semen is slightly alkaline, to neutralize the acidity of
  1. Prostaglandin present causes contraction of
  1. It contains nutrients to nourish and support the sperm during their journey through the female reproductive

Functions of placenta: (2 marks)

 

  1. To provide the foetus with nourishment and removal of waste material from the
  1. To act as the foetal lung by providing oxygenation of the fetal blood
  1. The placenta also acts as a barrier in preventing certain micro-organisms of disease reaching the fetus thus protects the
  2. The placenta helps the ovaries in the production of estrogen & progesterone hormones necessary for the continuation and maintenance of

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(d)What is sensory and motor neuron? (1+1 marks). Draw a well labeled diagram of typical neuron (2 marks).

Sensory neuron (1 mark): They carry information from the body to the spinal cord. The impulses may then pass to the brain or to connector neurons of reflex arcs in the spinal cord.

Motor neuron (1 mark): They originate in the brain, spinal cord and autonomic ganglia. They transmit impulses to the effector organs; muscles and glands.

(e)      Write the effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on:(4 marks, 2marks each )

  • Pupils:(0.5 + 0.5 marks)

 Sympathetic stimulation: Dilation of pupils causing mydriasis.

Parasymp.  stimulation: Constriction of pupils causing miosis.

(ii)   Bronchioles 🙁 0.5+0.5 marks)

Sympathetic stimulation: Bronchodilation allowing greater amount of air to enter the lungs at each inspiration.

Parasymp. stimulation: Bronchoconstriction (Broncho-spasm)

  • Blood vessel (1+1 marks) Sympathetic stimulation: Coronary artery: Vasodilation Skeletal blood vessels: Vasodilation

Other blood vessels: Vasoconstriction. Parasympathetic stimulation: Coronary artery: Vasoconstriction Skeletal blood vessels: Vasoconstriction Other blood vessels: Vasodilation

(e)  Explain the role of insulin and glucagon in the body. (4 marks, 2 marks each) Role of insulin (3 marks):

Role of insulin

  1. It increases the uptake of glucose by the
  1. Increases the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver & skeletal
  1. It increases the uptake of amino acids by the
  1. It promotes the synthesis of fatty acids & storage of fats in adipose tissue
  2. decreases
  3. Prevents breakdown of protein, fat & gluconeogenesis

Role of glucagon (1 mark): Its function is to increase blood sugar level. Whenever the blood sugar level falls below the normal the glycogen stored in the liver is broken down to glucose by the hormone glucagon.

Thus the two hormones help to maintain the blood sugar level constant.

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Pharma QA Job Interview Guide |+| Quality Assurance Interview Questions – Pharmaceutical Industry

Pharma QA Job Interview Guide Quality Assurance Interview Questions - Pharmaceutical Industry

Pharma QA Interview Question And Answer are here presented for you to help you to crack Quality Assurance Interview in Pharmaceutical manufacturing companies. Definition Of Quality Assurance along with its use In Pharma Industry are listed here below.

Quality Assurance Pharma Interview Questions – Part 1

Sample QA Interview Question:  Define quality assurance
Ans) QA is a broad range of concept contains all the matters that individually or collectively effect the quality of a product. QA mainly concentrated on planning and documenting the procedures to assure the quality of the product.

Sample QA Interview Question: What needs to be checked during inprocess QA checks?
A.
a.) Environmental Monitoring
b.) Measured values obtained from the process equipment (ex:temperature,RPM etc.)
c.) Measured values obtained from persons (ex:timmings,entries etc.)
d.) Process attributes (Ex:weight,hardness,friability etc.)

Sample QA Interview Question: What precautions shall be taken while collecting inprocess samples ?
A. While collecting inprocess samples, avoid contamination of the product being sampled (Don’t collect samples with bare hands) & avoid contamination of sample taken.

Sample QA Interview Question: In a tablet manufacturing facility ‘positive’ pressure is maintained in processing area or service corridors?
A. In tablet manufacturing facilities, pressure gradients are maintained to avoid cross contamination of products through air. Usually processing areas are maintained under positive pressure with respect to service corridors.

Sample QA Interview Question: If sticking observed during tablet compression what may the probable reason for the same?
A.
1.If the granules are not dried properly sticking can
occur.
2.Too little or improper lubrication can also leads to
sticking.
3.Sticking can occur because of too much binder or
hygroscopic granular.

Sample QA Interview Question: What checks shall be carried out, while calibrating DT apparatus?
A. While calibrating DT apparatus, following checks shall be performed.
1.) Number of strokes per minute (Limit:29-32 cycles/min)
2.) Temperature by probe & standard thermometer
(Limit: 37 ± 1 OC).
3). Distance travelled by basket (Limit:53 -57mm)

Explain the difference between QC and QA?

Ans) QA provides the confidence that a product will full fill the quality requirements. QC determines and measures the product quality level.

QA Interview Question: . Expand cGMP and what is the difference between GMP and cGMP?

Ans) cGMP known as Current Good Manufacturing Practices. It is a USFDA regulations to assure proper design , manufacturing and control of manufacturing processes and services.

GMP-Good Manufacturing Practices. These are the standard guidelines given by Food and Drug administration to make sure that a product is manufactured with safety and quality. c in cGMP means current. It refers to recent and advance updates to these standard guidelines. cGMP is up to date standard reference guidelines.

Pharma QA Job Interview Guide |+| Quality Assurance Interview Questions – Pharmaceutical Industry

Pharma QA Job Interview Guide Quality Assurance Interview Questions - Pharmaceutical Industry

Pharma QA Job Interview Q&A:  Tell me any five countries with their regulatory authorities?
Ans) India – Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO)

USA – United States Food and Drug Administation (USFDA)

UK – Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA)

Japan- Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare (MHLW)

Australia- Therapeutics Goods Administration (TGA)

Sample QA Interview Question: What is In process checks?
A. In process checks are checks performed during an activity,In order to monitor and,if necessary,to adjust the process to ensure that product confirms to its specification.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the difference between disintegration and dissolution?
A. Disintegration is a disaggregation process, in which an oral dosage form falls apart in to smaller aggregates.(Disintegration time is the ‘break up’ time of a solid dosage form).

Where as dissolution is a process by which solid substance enters in the solvent to yield a solution.It is controlled by the affinity between the solid substance and the solvent.

In other word disintegration is a subset of dissolution.

Sample QA Interview Question: Why do we calibrate a qualified equipment/instrument on definite intervals?
A. An equipment or instrument can ‘drift’ out of accuracy between the time of qualification and actual use.So it is recommended to calibrate and recalibrate the measuring devices and instruments on predetermined time intervals, to gain confidence on the accuracy of the data.

Pharma Quality Assurance Interview Q&A: What is room temperature?

Ans) 25 degree centigrade

Pharma Quality Assurance Interview Q&A:  What is the Ultraviolet(UV) and visible spectroscopy range?

Ans) UV spectroscopy range 200-400 nm, Visible spectroscopy range 400 nm to 800nm.

Pharma Quality Assurance Interview Q&A: What is the use of UV Spectroscopy?

Ans) Spectroscopy used for detecting the functional groups, impurities. Qualitative and quantitative analysis can be done.

Pharma QA Job Interview Guide Part 2

Sample QA Interview Question:  What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis?

Ans) Qualitative analysis involves identification of the compound or chemical based on their chemical(absorption, emission )or physical properties(e.g Melting point, boiling point).

Quantitative analysis involves estimation or determination of concentration or amount of the chemical compounds or components.

Q5) Explain the principle of Ultraviolet spectroscopy?

Ans) UV spectroscopy uses light in the UV part of electromagnetic spectrum. UV absorption spectra arises in which molecule or atoms outer electrons absorb energy, undergoes transition from lower energy level to higher energy level. For each molecule, absorbance at wavelength is specific.

Q6) Explain about Beer Lamberts law?

Ans) It states that the intensity of monochromatic light absorbed by a substance dissolved in a fully transmitting solvent is directly proportional to the substance concentration and the path length of the light through the solution.

Q7) Explain the Infrared spectroscopy principle?

Ans) When a molecule absorbs the Infrared radiation, it vibrates and gives rise to packed Infrared(IR) absorption spectrum. This IR spectrum is specific for every different molecule absorbing the IR radiation, useful for its identification.

Q8) What is the body temperature?

Ans) 37 oCelsius or 98.6 oF

v Define pH? What is the pH of blood?
Ans) pH -Negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. Blood pH-7.35 to 7.45.

Q10) Expand LCMS, HPLC,UPLC, TLC and GC?

Ans) LCMS- Liquid Chromatography

HPLC- High Performance Liquid Chromatography,

UPLC- Ultra High Performance Liquid Chomatography,

TLC- Thin Layer Chomatography,

GC- Gas Chromatography.

qc pharma interview questions for freshers

Q11) What is the HPLC principle?

Ans) It is a technique used for separating the mixture of components into individual components based on adsorption, partition, ion exchange and size exclusion principles. Stationary phase and mobile phase used in it. HPLC used for identification, quantification and purification of components form a mixture.

Q12) Explain HPLC instrumentation?

Ans) It involves solvent system, pump, Sample injector, HPLC columns, Detectors and Recorder. Firstly, solvent(mobile phase) is degassed for eliminating the bubbles. It is passed through the pump with a uniform pressure. The liquid sample is injected into the mobile phase flow stream. It passes through the stationary phase identified by the detectors and recorded.

Q13) In reverse phase HPLC, which type of stationary phase is used and give example?

Ans) Non polar stationary phase used

Ex: Silica gel C-18

Q14) What are the detectors used in HPLC?

Ans) UV detector, IR detector, Fluorescence detector, Mass spectroscopy, LC MS etc.

Q15) How to calculate Retention factor in paper chromatography?
Ans) Rf = Distance travelled by solute/ Distance travelled by solvent.

Q16) Define molarity?

Ans) Number of moles of solute per litre solution. Denoted with “M”

Quality Assurance Pharma Interview Questions – Part 2

Q17) Define Molality?

Ans) Number of moles of solute per kilogram solvent. Denoted with “m”

Q18) Define Normality?

Ans) Number of Number of moles equivalent per litre solution.

 

Q19) Molecular weight of oxygen?

Ans) 16

Difference between humidity and relative humidity?

Ans) Humidity – Measure of amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere.

Relative humidity- Water vapour amount exists in air expressed as a percentage of the amount needed for saturation at the same temperature.

Sample QA Interview Question: Why do we consider three consecutive runs/batches for process validation? Why not two or four?
A. The number of batches produced in the validation exercise should be sufficient to allow the normal extent of variation and trends to be established and to provide sufficient data for evaluation and reproducibility.
· First batch quality is accidental (co-incidental),
· Second batch quality is regular (accidental),
· Third batch quality is validation(conformation).
In 2 batch we cannot assure the reproducibility of data,4 batches can be taken but the time and cost are involved.

Sample QA Interview Question: Explain about revalidation criteria of AHU system?
A. AHU system shall be revalidated periodically as mentioned in the regulatory standards. AHU shall be revalidated in following cases also.
· When basic design of AHU is changed,
· When clean room volume is changed,
· When new equipment is installed
· When a construction is carried out, that calls for reconstruction of AHU system.

Sample QA Interview Question: What needs to be checked during AHU validation?
A. During AHU validation, following tests shall be carried out
· Filter efficiency test,
· Air velocity & number of air changes,
· Air flow pattern (visualization)
· Differential pressure, temperature and RH
· Static condition area qualification
· Dynamic condition qualification
· Non-viable count
· Microbial monitoring
· Area recovery and power failure study.

Sample QA Interview Question: Position of oblong tablets to be placed in hardness tester to determine the hardness? Lengthwise / widthwise?
A. Position of oblong tablets should be length wise because the probability of breakage is more in this position.

Sample QA Interview Question: Explain in detail about qualification of pharmaceutical water system?
A. Qualification of pharmaceutical water system involves three phases
· Phase -1
· Phase -2
· Phase -3
Phase -1
A test period of 2-4 weeks should be spent for monitoring the system intensively. During this period the system should operate continuously without failure or performance deviation.Water cannot be used for pharmaceutical manufacturing in this phase.The following should be included in testing approach.
· Under take chemical & microbiological testing in accordance with a defined plan.
· Sample incoming feed water daily to verify its quality.
· Sample each step of purification process daily.
· Sample each point of use daily.
· Develop appropriate operating ranges.
· Demonstrate production and delivery of product water of required quantity and quality.
· Use and refine the SOP’s for operation,maintenance,sanitization and trouble shooting.
· Verify provisional alert and action levels.
· Develop and refine test failure procedure.

Phase -2
A further test period of 2-4 weeks. Sampling scheme will be same as Phase – 1.Water can be used for manufacturing process in this phase.
Approach should also
· Demonstrate consistent operation within established ranges.
· Demonstrate consistent production & delivery of water of required quality and quantity.

Phase – 3
Phase 3 runs for one year after satisfactory completion of phase-2.Water can be used for manufacturing process during this process.

Objectives & Features of Phase -3
· Demonstrate extensive reliable performance.
· Ensure that seasonal variations are evaluated.
· The sample locations, sampling frequencies and test should be reduced to the normal routine pattern based on established procedures proven during Phase -1 & phase – 2.

Sample QA Interview Question: What are the recommended environmental monitoring limits for microbial contamination?

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the difference between calibration and Validation?
A. Calibration is a demonstration that, a particular
Instrument or device produces results with in specified limits by comparisons with those produced by a reference or traceable standard over an appropriate range of measurements.

Where as Validation is a documented program that provides high degree of assurance that a specific process, method or system consistently produces a result meeting pre-determined acceptance criteria.

In calibration performance of an instrument or device is comparing against a reference standard. But in validation such reference standard is not using.

Calibration ensures that instrument or measuring devices producing accurate results. Whereas validation demonstrates that a process, equipment, method or system produces consistent results (in other words, it ensures that uniforms batches are produced).

Sample QA Interview Question: Briefly explain about ICH climatic zones for stability testing & long term storage conditions?
A.ICH STABILITY ZONES
Zone
Type of Climate
Zone I
Temperate zone
Zone II
Mediterranean/subtropical zone
Zone III
Hot dry zone
Zone IVa
Hot humid/tropical zone
Zone IVb
ASEAN testing conditions hot/higher humidity

Long term Storage condition
Climatic Zone
Temperature
Humidity
Minimum Duration
Zone I
21ºC ± 2ºC
45% rH ± 5% rH
12 Months
Zone II
25ºC ± 2ºC
60% rH ± 5% rH
12 Months
Zone III
30ºC ± 2ºC
35% rH ± 5% rH
12 Months
Zone IV
30ºC ± 2ºC
65% rH ± 5% rH
12 Months
Zone IVb
30ºC ± 2ºC
75% rH ± 5% rH
12 Months
Refrigerated
5ºC ± 3ºC
No Humidity
12 Months
Frozen
-15ºC ± 5ºC
No Humidity
12 Months

Sample QA Interview Question: What is bracketing & matrixing in stability testing?
A.Both Matrixing & Bracketing’s are reduced stability testing designs
Bracketing
The design of a stability schedule, such that only samples of extremes of certain design factors (ex:strength,package size) are tested at all time points as in full design.The designs assumes that the stability of any intermediate level is represented by the stability of extremes tested.
Matrixing
The design of a stability schedule, such that a selected subset of possible samples for all factor combinations is tested at a specified time point.At a subsequent time point another subset of samples for all factor combination is tested.The design assumes that the stability of each subset samples tested represents the stability of all samples at a given time point.
There for a given time point other than initial & final ones not every batch on stability needs to be tested.

Sample QA Interview Question:What are the common variables in the manufacturing of tablets?
A.
· Particle size of the drug substance
· Bulk density of drug substance/excipients
· Powder load in granulator
· Amount & concentration of binder
· Mixer speed & mixing timings
· Granulation moisture content
· Milling conditions
· Lubricant blending times
· Tablet hardness
· Coating solution spray rate

Sample QA Interview Question: Whether bracketing & validation concept can be applied in process validation?
A.Both Matrixing & Bracketing’s can be applied in validation studies.
Matrixing
Different strength of same product
Different size of same equipment
Bracketting – Evaluating extremes
Largest and smallest fill volumes
Fastest and slowest operating speeds

1. What is an SOP ?

A Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is a certain type of document that describes in a step-by-step outline form how to perform a particular task or operation. Everyone in a company must follow the same procedures to assure that tasks are performed consistently and correctly. Most companies have a wide variety of SOPs that describe how to do different tasks. In many companies technicians and operators are trained in how to follow individual SOPs and their training record specifies which SOPs they are trained on and are authorized to use.

2. What is 21 CFR part 11 ?

Title 21 CFR Part 11 of the Code of Federal Regulations deals with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines on electronic records and electronic signatures in the United States. Part 11, as it is commonly called, defines the criteria under which electronic records and electronic signatures are considered to be trustworthy, reliable and equivalent to paper records

 What are user requirements ?

User Requirements Specification describes what users require from the System. User requirement specifications are written early in the validation process, typically before the system is created. It is written by the System Owner and End Users, with input from Quality Assurance. Requirements outlined in the URS are usually tested in the Performance Qualification. User Requirements Specifications are not intended to be a technical document; readers with only a general knowledge of the system should be able to understand the requirements outlined in the URS.

4. What is a validation plan ?

Validation Plans define the scope and goals of a validation project. Validation plans are written before a validation project and are specific to a single validation project. Validation Plans can include:

Deliverables (Documents) to be generated during the validation process
Resources/Departments/Personnel to participate in the validation project
Time-Line for completing the validation project

5. What is an IQ document ?

Installation Qualifications are a collection of test cases used to verify the proper installation of a System. The requirement to properly install the system was defined in the Design Specification. Installation Qualifications must be performed before completing Operational Qualification or Performance Qualification.

6. What is an OQ Document ?

Operational Qualifications are a collection of test cases used to verify the proper functioning of a System. The operational qualification tests requirements defined in the Functional Requirements. Operational Qualifications are usually performed before the system is released for use.

7. What is a PQ Document ?

Performance Qualifications are a collection of test cases used to verify that a System performs as expected under simulated real-world conditions. The performance qualification tests requirements that were defined in the User Requirement Specification (or possibly the Functional Requirements). Due to the nature of performance qualifications, these tests are sometime conducted with power users as the system is being released.

8. What is a Validation Summary Report ?

Validation Summary Reports provide an overview of the entire validation project. When regulatory auditors review validation projects, they typically begin by reviewing the summary report. The validation summary report should include:

A description of the validation project
All test cases performed, including if those test cases passed without issue
All deviations reported, including how those deviations were resolved

9. What is a Change Request ?

Change Control is a general term describing the process of managing how changes are introduced into a controlled System. In validation, this means how changes are made to the validated system. Change control is required to demonstrate to regulatory authorities that validated systems remain under control after system changes. Change Control systems are a favorite target of regulatory auditors because they vividly demonstrate an organization capacity to control its systems.

Sample QA Interview Question: Why water for pharmaceutical use is always kept in close loop in continuous circulation ?
A. Water is a best medium for many microorganisms, microorganism can be a highly pathogenic which causes serious diseases(many diseases are water born), these pathogens infect after consumption of contaminated water, microorganisms tend to settle on a surface if water is allowed to stand in a stagnant position for few hours, these settled microorganism form a film over the surface of vessel and piping, such film formed by microorganisms is also called as biofilm, biofilms are very difficult of remove, once a biofilm is formed at a particular point then that point may form a biofilm again even after cleaning very easily as seed from this point is may not completely get removed effectively.

Biofilms then can become a source of microbial contaminations; therefore purified water after collection in a distribution system is always kept in a closed loop in a continuous circulation.
A continuous circulation is also not enough at some points, therefore it is aided with high temperature range from 65 °C to 80°C, a minimum temperature of 65 °C is considered a self sanitizing, but better assurance is obtained with a temperature of 80°C .

Purified water collected should be stored in a stainless still vessel which must facilitate distribution to the point of use in a closed loop of continuous circulation, tank should be made of corrosion free material of construction, and must facilitate sanitization and easy cleaning.

Quality Assurance Pharma Interview Questions – Part 3

Sample QA Interview Question: Water for pharmaceutical use shall be free cations,anions and other impurities why ?

A.Water for pharmaceutical must be free from inorganic as well as organic impurities, minerals, and heavy metals. Some impurities like calcium, magnesium, ferrous are responsible for degradation of drug molecule, many cations like ferrous and calcium magnesium act as catalysts in degradation reaction of drug molecule, anions like chloride are highly active they participate in nucliophylic substitution reactions, where in they break a double bond between -C=C- in to a single bond as CL –CH-CH2- , which a reason why we observe that color dies tend to fed in presence of chlorine as most of the dies used are diazo compounds which has plenty of places for nucliophylic substitution reactions, which is also a reason why stability of drug is drastically affected in presence of cations and anions from mineral origin present in water.

Sample QA Interview Question: Water for pharmaceutical use shall be free heavy metals why ?
A. Heavy metals like lead and arsenic are highly cumulative neurotoxic metals, heavy metals are not eliminated out of our body easily like other drugs and molecules but heavy metals bind with proteins and tend to get accumulated in fatty tissues, nerve tissue is most likely to get damaged by heavy metals, heavy metal causes nervous tissue damage there for water must be free from heavy metals.

Sample QA Interview Question: Brazil falls under which climatic zone ?
A. Zone IVB (30 degree celsius and 75% relative humidity)

Sample QA Interview Question: Change in the size or shape of the original container requires any stability study?
A. Change in the size or shape of the original container may not necessitate the initiation of new stability study.

Sample QA Interview Question: Forced degradation(stress testing) and accelerated stability testing are same?
A. Forced degradation and stress testing are not same. Stress testing is likely to be carried out on a single batch of the drug substance. The testing should include the effect of temperatures (in 10°C increments (e.g., 50°C, 60°C) above that for accelerated testing), humidity (e.g., 75 percent relative humidity or greater) where appropriate, oxidation, and photolysis on the drug substance. The testing should also evaluate the susceptibility of the drug substance to hydrolysis across a wide range of pH values when in solution or suspension. Photo stability testing should be an integral part of stress testing.

Sample QA Interview Question: According to WHO guidelines what is the storage condition of climatic zone IVa and zone IVb?
A. Zone IV a: 30°C and 65% RH (hot and humid countries)
Zone IV b: 30°C and 75% RH (hot and very humid countries

Sample QA Interview Question: Countries comes under climatic zone IVb?
A.Brazil,Cuba,China,Brunei,Cambodia,Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Philippines,Singapore,Thailand

 

Pharmaceutical Industry Interview Questions pdf

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the purpose of stress testing in stability studies?
A. Stress testing of the drug substance can help identify the likely degradation products, which can in turn help establish the degradation pathways and the intrinsic stability of the molecule and validate the stability indicating power of the analytical procedures used. The nature of the stress testing will depend on the individual drug substance and the type of drug product involved.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the formula for calculating number of air changes in an area?
A. Number of air changes/hour in an area is

= Total Room Airflow In CFM x 60
Total Volume of room in cubic feet
For calculating Total Room Airflow in CFM, first calculate air flow of individual filter. Formula is given below.

Air flow (in cfm) = Avg.air velocity in feet/Minute x Effective area of filter

Then find Total air flow. Formula is
Total Air flow = Sum of air flow of individual filter.

Air flow Velocity can be measured with the help of Anemometer.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is dead leg?
A. A dead leg is defined as an area in a piping system where liquid can become stagnant and not be exchanged during flushing.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the recommended bio burden limits of purified water & WFI?
A. Purified water has a recommended bioburden limit of 100 CFU/mL, and water for injection (WFI) has a recommended bio burden limit of 10 CFU/100 mL.
Sample QA Interview Question: Brief about ICH stabilty guidelines?
A. Q1A- Stability testing of new drug substance & products
Q1B- Photo stability testing of new drug substances & products
Q1C-Stability testing of new dosage forms
Q1D-Bracketing & Matrixing designs for testing of new drug substances and products
Q1E-Evaluation of stability data
Q1F-Stability data package for registration applications in climatic zone III & IV (Withdrawed)

Sample QA Interview Question: What is significant changes in stability testing?
A.
1. A 5% change in assay for initial value.

2. Any degradation products exceeds its acceptance
criterion.

3. Failure to meet acceptance criterion for
appearance,physical artributes and functionality
test.

4. Failure to meet acceptance criteria for dissolution
for 12 units.

Sample QA Interview Question: If leak test fail during in process checks what needs to be done ?
A.
Immediately stop packing process and check for
1.Sealing temperature
2.Verify for any possible changes like foil width,knurling etc.
3.Check & quarantine the isolated quantity of packed goods from last passed inprocess.
4.Collect random samples & do retest.
5.Blisters from the leak test passed containers shall allow to go further and rest must be deblistered/defoiled accordingly.

Sample QA Interview Question: How many Tablets shall be taken for checking friability?
A. For tablets with unit mass equal or less than 650 mg, take sample of whole tablets corresponding to 6.5g.For tablets with unit mass more than 650mg,take a sample of 10 whole tablets.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the formula for calculating weight loss during friability test?
A. %Weight loss = Initial Weight – Final Weight X 100
Initial Weight

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the pass or fail criteria for friability test?
A. Generally the test is run for once.If any cracked,cleaved or broken tablets present in the tablet sample after tumbling,the tablets fails the test.If the results are doubtful,or weight loss is grater than the targeted value,the test should be repeated twice and the mean of the three tests determined.A mean weight loss from the three samples of not more than 1.0% is considered acceptable for most of the products.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the standard number of rotations used for friability test?
A. 100 rotations

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the fall height of the tablets in the friabilator during friability testing?
A. 6 inches.Tablets falls from 6 inches eight in each turn within the apparatus.

Sample QA Interview Question: Why do we check hardness during inprocess checks?
A. To determine need for the pressure adjustments on the tableting machine. Hardness can affect the disintegration time.If tablet is too hard, it may not disintegrate in the required period of time. And if tablet is too soft it will not withstand handling and subsequent processing such as coating,packing etc.

Sample QA Interview Question: What are the factors which influence tablet hardness?
A.
1.compression force
2.Binder quantity(More binder more hardness)
3.Moisture content

Sample QA Interview Question: Which type of tablets are exempted from Disintegration testing?
A. Chewable Tablets

Sample QA Interview Question: Which capsule is bigger in size – size ‘0’ or size ‘1’?
A. ‘0’ size

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the recommended temperature for checking DT of a dispersible tablet?
A. 25 ±10C (IP) & 15 – 250C (BP)

Sample QA Interview Question: What is mesh aperture of DT apparatus ?
A. 1.8 -2.2mm (#10)

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the pass/fail criteria for disintegration test?

A. If one or two tablets/capsules fails to disintegrate completely, repeat the test on another 12 additional dosage units. The requirement is meet if not fewer than 16 out of 18 tablets/capsules tested are disintegrated completely.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the recommended storage conditions for empty hard gelatin capsules?
A. 15 – 250C & 35 -55% RH

Sample QA Interview Question: Which method is employed for checking “Uniformity of dosage unit”?
A.
A.)Content uniformity
B.) Weight Variation
Weight variation is applicable for following dosage forms;Hard gelatin capsules,uncoated or film coated tablets,containing 25mg or more of a drug substance comprising 25% or more by weight of dosage unit.

Sample QA Interview Question: What is the recommended upward and downward movement frequency of a basket-rack assembly in a DT apparatus?
A. 28 – 32 cycles per minute.

Sample QA Interview Question: When performing the ‘uniformity of weight’ of the dosage unit, how many tablet/capsule can deviate the established limit?
A. Not more than two of the individual weights can deviates from the average weight by more than the percentage given in the pharmacopeia,and none can deviates more than twice that percentage.
Weight Variation limits for Tablets

IP/BP
Limit
USP
80 mg or less
10%
130mg or less
More than 80mg or Less than 250mg
7.5%
130mg to 324mg
250mg or more
5%
More than 324mg

Weight Variation limits for Capsules
IP
Limit
Less than 300mg
10%
300mg or More
7.5%

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B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS: TOPICS FOR PROJECT WORK OF Pharmacognosy STUDENTS

B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS TOPICS FOR PROJECT WORK OF Pharmacognosy STUDENTS

Pharmacognosy B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS TOPICS

Effect of Natural Product Clove Bud Oil on Pathogenic Pseudomonas aeruginosa Virulence and Host Response

Phytochemical And Anti-Inflammatory Studies On The Hexane Extract Of The Stem Bark Of Steganotaenia Araliacea Hoschts (Apiaceae)

Phytochemical And Inhibition Studies Of Garcinia Kola Heckel (Guttiferae) Seed Extracts On Some Key Enzymes Involved With Diabetes

Phytochemical And Biological Studies On The Seeds Of Jatropha Curcas Linn. (Euphorbiaceae) –

Phytochemical And Anti Bacterial Studies On The Stem Bark Of Lannea Barteri. (Oliv.) Engl. (Anacardiaceae)

Pharmacognostic And Pro-Fertility Evaluations Of Dracaena Arborea (Willd) Linn. (Dracaenaceae) –

Pharmacognostic And Antimicrobial Studies On The Stem-Bark Of Ficus Kamerunensis Warb. (Moraceae)

Pharmacognostic And Antibacterial Studies Of The Leaf Extracts Of Swartzia Madagascariensis Desv (Fabaceae)

Pharmacognosy  M. PHARMACY PROJECT TOPICS

Pharmacognostic And Antibacterial Studies Of Acacia Sieberiana Var Woodii (Fabaceae) Stem Bark –

Antimicrobial Property Of The Hexane Extract From The Pods Of Acacia Nilotica(L.) Del.

Phytochemical And Antimalarial Studies Of The Leaves Of Uvaria Chamae P.Beauv. (Annonaceae) –

Development And Validation Of Spectrophotometric Methods For The Determination Of Risperidone In Pure And Tablet Dosage Forms

Spectrophotometric Determination And Stability Studies Of Artemether In Artemether-Lumefantrine Suspensions Marketed In our Country, Nigeria

Phytochemical Studies And Effect Of Methanol Leaf Extract Of Leptadenia Hastata (Pers.) Decne (Asclepiadaceae) On Acetic Acid Induced Writhes In Mice And Venom Of Echis Ocellatus –

Phytochemical And Antimicrobial Studies On The Stem-Bark Of Commiphora Mollis (Oliv. ) Engl. (Burseracaea)

Phytochemical And Antimicrobial Studies Of Spermacoce Verticillata (Rubiaceae)

Comparative Evaluation Of The Ascorbic Acid Content Of Mineral Ascorbate And Ascorbic Acid Tablets Marketed In our Country

Pharmacognosy B.PHARMACY PROJECT TOPICS

Extraction, Formulation and Pharmacological evaluation of an Anti Microbial Cream Alexeyena Varghese

Pregnancy complications and role of life style modifications in a woman with Poly Cystic Ovary Syndrome (Pcos) Remya Reghu

Development and Validation of quantitative methods for the estimation of a drug in a dosage form Aneesh T. P.

Design, Synthesis and biological evaluation of Indole-3-Carbinol Sathianarayanan S.

Phytochemical, Pharmacological analysis and formulative study of aqueous extracts of dried galls of Quercus Infectoria Deepa T. Vasudevan

Study for assessment of knowledge , compliance and behavior of diabetes patients Meenu Vijayan

Preparation and evaluation of extended Release tablets Vidya Viswanad

Development and evaluationof Gastro- Retentive Floating Tablet(GRFT) of Rantidine Hydrochloride Swati Gupta

Role of Pharmacists in communication gap between Physician and Patient Leena Thomas

Study of dental problems in diabetic patients and their therapeutic management Naveen Kumar Panicker

Spasmolytic effect of (-) carvone on Isolated Vascular and Non-Vascular superfused smooth muscle preparations Mohamed Shabi

B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS TOPICS FOR PROJECT WORK OF Pharmacognosy STUDENTS

Human RBC Membrane stabilization study using Anti – inflammatory drug by In-vitro method Jipnomon Joseph

Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Aqueous Leaf Extracts of Chrysophyllum cainito R. Aravind

Study on complication of Gestational Diabetes and its management in a tertiary care teaching hospital Roshni P. R.

Comparative study of different species of Tulasi for larvicidal activity Rahul R.

Formulation, evaluation and In-Vitro activity of Gel loaded with Quinex Moringa Litha Thomas

Anti oxidant Activity of chromene compounds and their microwave synthesis

B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS: TOPICS FOR PROJECT WORK OF Pharmaceutical Chemistry STUDENTS

B.PHARMACY M. PHARMACY PROJECTS TOPICS FOR PROJECT WORK OF Pharmaceutical Chemistry STUDENTS. pdf

Here are B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS: TOPICS FOR PROJECT WORK OF Pharmaceutical Chemistry STUDENTS. Medicinal Chemistry is a vast and pious branch in Pharmaceutical sciences. Many researchers and professors are into huge research. Drug Discovery is the trending research in Pharmaceutical chemistry branch of Medicinal Chemistry. Drug Design, synthesis and binding studies  of different products along with traditional synthesis of products is current research era. Trying different and Innovative ways to drug discovery through receptors peptides Enzymes Harmon’s is one good thought for selecting some project in your B.PHARMACY & M. PHARMACY PROJECTS.

Pharmaceutical Chemistry Projects for M Pharmacy B Pharmacy

Design, synthesis and binding studies of water-soluble fluoride receptors

Developing an enzymatic toolbox to make complex modified peptides

Discovery of novel pharmaceuticals from marine and desert microorganisms

Synthesis and study of simplified vancomycin analogues as novel antibiotics

Organic crystals with large channels and nanopores

Innovative ways to disinfect surfaces using catalysis

Discovery of novel cancer immunotherapeutic agents

First-Principles Based Mechanochemistry of Pharmaceutical Active Ingredients

Molecular mechanism of action and inhibition of ATP synthase using biomolecular simulations

Carbon nanotubes in the boron neutron capture therapy of cancer

In silico modelling of protein dynamics in heart disease

Targeting the CXCR4-CB2 G-protein coupled receptor complex as a treatment for breast cancer

Shape Variant Nanoparticles for Pathogen Sensing

Magnetic hyperthemia for cancer treatment: synthesis, biofunctionalisation of nanoparticles for thermo-chemotherapy

Total Synthesis of the Dineolignan Ophiocerol and Derivatives

Synthesis of bioactive natural products and associated analogues

Chiral sulfoxide auxiliaries for the asymmetric synthesis of benzannulated spiroketals

Synthesis of unusual dispiro metabolites

Synthesis of danshenspiroketallactones and cryptoacetalides

Synthesis of Danshenspiroketallactone and Cryptoacetalide for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Disorders

Vaccine design for lectin targets

Organocatalytic assymetric synthesis of 6,5-benzannulated spiroketals

Synthetic and Computational Studies on Members of the Pyranonaphthoquinone Family of Anitbiotics

Design and synthesis of rat selective toxicants

Investigating the efficacy of novel antimicrobial mixes on microorganisms, surfaces and cells lines; an integrated study

Natural products as prophylaxis and treatment for gonococcal eye infections

Novel assays for screening drug – lipid membrane interactions

Organic/physical/computational chemistry – Improved methods for modelling reactivity and physical properties

Design and Synthesis of a Prospective Drug Candidate Against Diabetes

Synthesis of Mukanadin B and Analogues as Possible Neuroprotective Agents

B.PHARMACY PROJECTS TOPICS

  • Anti Inflammatory Activity of Chalcones
  • Design, Synthesis & Biological Evaluation of Antiprostrate Cancer Agents
  • Studies on the constituents isolated from the Shizoines of Nervilia Aragoana GAUD
  • Studies on effect of Structural modifications on Antimicrobial Chitoran
  • In silico design,Synthesis and Invitrostudies of some novel 4H-Chromene Derivatives as Anticancer Agents
  • Structural model of the Alpha-pPhosphoglucomutase and De Novo design of Inhibitors for the treatment of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis

Aza-lignan project in Medicinal Chemistry

Derivatives of Anticancer Agents

 M. PHARMACY PROJECTS TOPICS – Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Synthesis of Biologically Active Lignan Natural Products via an Acyl-Claisen Rearrangement and an Unusual 1,4-diaryl Rearrangement

Studies towards the asymmetric synthesis of 1,4-benzodioxane neolignans

Development of bioactive 3C protease inhibitors as therapeutics to treat the common cold

Novel Selective Ligands of the CB1/D2 Receptor Heterodimer

Method Development for Characterization of Novel Copper Chelators in Patients with Diabetes

Synthetic investigation of neurologically active therapeutic agents

Synthesis of cyclic peptides isolated from a psychrophile

Total Synthesis of Aspergillus Spiroketal and its analogues

Asymmetric gold-catalysed synthesis of the paecilospirone spiroacetal

Total synthesis of lasionectrin and related analogues as novel anti-malaria agents

Synthesis of marine derived natural products Aigialospirol and its analogues

B.PHARMACY M. PHARMACY PROJECTS TOPICS FOR PROJECT WORK OF Pharmaceutical Chemistry STUDENTS. pdf

Total synthesis of terreinol, a spiroketal natural product, and investigation into enantioselective oxidative spiroketalisation

Studies towards onchidal’s acetycholine esterase inhibitory activity

The synthesis and investigation of marine natural products as potential anti-fouling agents

Bioactive marine natural product

The synthesis of natural product containing polymers for use in the prevention of biofilms

Marine Natural Products in Drug Discovery

Studies Towards the Design, Synthesis and Analysis of Bioactive Peptides

Studies towards the identification and synthesis of proteins expressed in intact and degenerate bovine cartilage

Peptide conjugation to build tumour selectivity into potential chemotherapeutic agents

Medicinal Chemistry Projects or Pharma Chemistry Projects for Masters / B Pharmacy

In Medicinal chemistry Projects B pharmacy and M Pharmacy students can take up wide variety of research topics which deals with Synthesis, Characterization and Docking Studies of some products, or Green Synthesis and Characterization of products, or In Silco Molecular Modeling or Cellular Redox State Modifications or High Throughput Kinetic Assay for Screening Potential Inhibitors. You can also try Method Development for Characterization of Novel products. Just you can make a list of your interested research topics for your B pharm and M Pharm projects and give them to your Guide. He or she will mentor you according to the current trend, necessity and resources availability.

Below are few examples of projects for pharmacy students who are interested in Medicinal Chemistry. These are the current trending and ongoing project list from different places and institutes.

  1. Synthesis of Mukanadin B and Analogues as Possible Neuroprotective Agents
  2. Synthesizing novel self assembled monolayer conductive polymers for improving biocompatible and norotrophic devices
  3. Synthesis of Biologically Active Lignan Natural Products via an Acyl-Claisen Rearrangement and an Unusual 1,4-diaryl Rearrangement
  4. Studies towards the asymmetric synthesis of 1,4-benzodioxane neolignans
  5. Total Synthesis of the Dineolignan Ophiocerol and Derivatives
  6. Synthesis of bioactive natural products and associated analogues
  7. Vaccine design for lectin targets
  8. Design and synthesis of rat selective toxicants
  9. Development of bioactive 3C protease inhibitors as therapeutics to treat the common cold
  10. Novel Selective Ligands of the CB1/D2 Receptor Heterodimer
  11. Method Development for Characterization of Novel Copper Chelators in Patients with Diabetes
  12. Synthetic investigation of neurologically active therapeutic agents
  13. Synthesis of cyclic peptides isolated from a psychrophile\
  14. Total Synthesis of Aspergillus Spiroketal and its analogues
  15. Asymmetric gold-catalysed synthesis of the paecilospirone spiroacetal \
  16. Total synthesis of lasionectrin and related analogues as novel anti-malaria agents
  17. Synthesis of marine derived natural products Aigialospirol and its analogues
  18. Total synthesis of terreinol, a spiroketal natural product, and investigation into
  19. enantioselective oxidative spiroketalisation
  20. Studies towards onchidal’s acetycholine esterase inhibitory activit
  21. Design and synthesis of rat selective toxicants
  22. Development of bioactive 3C protease inhibitors as therapeutics to treat the common cold
  23. Novel Selective Ligands of the CB1/D2 Receptor Heterodimer
  24. Method Development for Characterization of Novel Copper Chelators in Patients with Diabetes
  25. Synthetic investigation of neurologically active therapeutic agents
  26. Synthesis of cyclic peptides isolated from a psychrophile
  27. Total Synthesis of Aspergillus Spiroketal and its analogues
  28. Asymmetric gold-catalysed synthesis of the paecilospirone spiroacetal
  29. Total synthesis of lasionectrin and related analogues as novel anti-malaria agents
  30. Synthesis of marine derived natural products Aigialospirol and its analogues
  31. Total synthesis of terreinol, a spiroketal natural product, and investigation into enantioselective oxidative spiroketalisation
  32. Studies towards onchidal’s acetycholine esterase inhibitory activity.