ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION PPT PDF 10 Routes of Drug Administration

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Which drug administration route is fastest?,

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION: The possible routes for drug entry into the body. Most drugs can be administered by a variety of routes. The choice of appropriate route in a given situation depends both on drug as well as patient related factors. Mostly common sense considerations, feasibility and convenience dictate the route to be used. Generally routes of drug administration refer to the right path or the required route through which a drug has to be administered into the body to obtain maximum benefit. Here is the list of  5, 10+ outes of drug administration.

  1. oral
  2. sublingual
  3. rectal
  4. nasal
  5. ocular
  6. otic
  7. inhalation
  8. nebulization
  9. transdermal
  10. Subcutaneous (under the skin)
  11. Intramuscular (in a muscle)
  12. Intravenous (in a vein)
  13. Intrathecal (around the spinal cord

Factors governing choice of route

  1. Physical and chemical properties of the drug (solid/ liquid/gas; solubility, stability, pH, irritancy).
  2. Site of desired action—localized and approachable or generalized and not approachable.
  3. Rate and extent of absorption of the drug from different routes.
  4. Effect of digestive juices and first pass metabolism on the drug.
  5. Rapidity with which the response is desired (routine treatment or emergency).
  6. Accuracy of dosage required (i.v. and inhalational can provide fine tuning).
  7. Condition of the patient (unconscious, vomiting).

Routes of Administration can be broadly divided into those for

(a) Local action and (b) Systemic action.

LOCAL ROUTES

These routes can only be used for localized lesions at accessible sites and for drugs whose systemic absorption from these sites is minimal or absent. Thus, high concentrations are attained at the desired site without exposing the rest of the body. Systemic side effects or toxicity are consequently absent or minimal. For drugs (in suitable dosage forms) that are absorbed from these sites/routes, the same can serve as systemic route of administration, e.g. glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) applied on the skin as ointment or transdermal patch. The local routes are:

  1. Topical

This refers to external application of the drug to the surface for localized action. It is often more convenient as well as encouraging to the patient. Drugs can be efficiently delivered to the localized lesions on skin, oropharyngeal/ nasal mucosa, eyes, ear canal, anal canal or vagina in the form of lotion, ointment, cream, powder, rinse, paints, drops, spray, lozengens, suppositories or pesseries. Nonabsorbable drugs given orally for action on g.i. mucosa (sucralfate, vancomycin), inhalation of drugs for action on bronchi (salbutamol, cromolyn sodium) and irrigating solutions/jellys (povidone iodine, lidocaine) applied to urethra are other forms of topical medication.

  1. Deeper tissues

Certain deep areas can be approached by using a syringe and needle, but the drug should be in such a form that systemic absorption is slow, e.g. intra-articular injection (hydrocortisone acetate in knee joint), infiltration around a nerve or intrathecal injection (lidocaine), retrobulbar injection (hydrocortisone acetate behind the eyeball).

  1. Arterial supply

Close intra-arterial injection is used for contrast media in angiography; anticancer drugs can be infused in femoral or brachial artery to localise the effect for limb malignancies.

SYSTEMIC ROUTES

The drug administered through systemic routes is intended to be absorbed into the blood streamand distributed all over, including the site of action, through circulation

  1. Oral

Oral ingestion is the oldest and commonest mode of drug administration. It is safer, more convenient, does not need assistance, noninvasive, often painless, the medicament need not be sterile and so is cheaper. Both solid dosage forms (powders, tablets, capsules, spansules, dragees, moulded tablets, gastrointestinal therapeutic systems— GITs) and liquid dosage forms (elixirs, syrups, emulsions, mixtures) can be given orally.

Limitations of oral route of administration

  • Action of drugs is slower and thus not suitable for emergencies.
  • Unpalatable drugs (chloramphenicol) are difficult to administer; drug may be filled in capsules to circumvent this.
  • May cause nausea and vomiting (emetine).
  • Cannot be used for uncooperative/unconscious/ vomiting patient.
  • Absorption of drugs may be variable and erratic; certain drugs are not absorbed (streptomycin).
  • Others are destroyed by digestive juices (penicillin G, insulin) or in liver (GTN, testosterone, lidocaine).

  1. Sublingual (s.l.) or buccal

The tablet or pellet containing the drug is placed under the tongue or crushed in the mouth and spread over the buccal mucosa. Only lipid soluble and non-irritating drugs can be so administered. Absorption is relatively rapid—action can be produced in minutes. Though it is somewhat inconvenient, one can spit the drug after the desired effect has been obtained. The chief advantage is that liver is bypassed and drugs with high first pass metabolism can be absorbed directly into systemic circulation. Drugs given sublingually are—GTN, buprenorphine, desamino-oxytocin.

  1. Rectal

Certain irritant and unpleasant drugs can be put into rectum as suppositories or retention enema for systemic effect. This route can also be used when the patient is having recurrent vomiting or is unconscious. However, it is rather inconvenient and embarrassing; absorption is slower, irregular and often unpredictable, though diazepam solution and paracetamol suppository are rapidly and dependably absorbed from the rectum in children. Drug absorbed into external haemorrhoidal veins (about 50%) bypasses liver, but not that absorbed into internal haemorrhoidal veins. Rectal inflammation can result from irritant drugs. Diazepam, indomethacin, paracetamol, ergotamine and few other drugs are some times given rectally.

  1. Cutaneous

Highly lipid soluble drugs can be applied over the skin for slow and prolonged absorption. The liver is also bypassed. The drug can be incorporated in an ointment and applied over specified area of skin. Absorption of the drug can be enhanced by rubbing the preparation, by using an oily base and by an occlusive dressing.

 

Transdermal therapeutic systems (TTS)

 

These are devices in the form of adhesive patches of various shapes and sizes (5–20 cm2) which deliver the contained drug at a constant rate into systemic circulation via the stratum corneum (Fig. 1.2). The drug (in solution or bound to a polymer) is held in a reservoir between an occlusive backing film and a rate controlling micropore membrane, the under surface of which is smeared with an adhesive impregnated with priming dose of the drug. The adhesive layer is protected by another film that is to be peeled off just before application. The drug is delivered at the skin surface by diffusion for percutaneous absorption into circulation. The micropore membrane is such that rate of drug delivery to skin surface is less than the slowest rate of absorption from the skin. This offsets any variation in the rate of absorption according to the properties of different sites. As such, the drug is delivered at a constant and predictable rate irrespective of site of application. Usually chest, abdomen, upper arm, lower back, buttock or mastoid region are utilized. Transdermal patches of GTN, fentanyl, nicotine and estradiol are available in India, while those of isosorbide dinitrate, hyoscine, and clonidine are marketed elsewhere. For different drugs, TTS have been designed to last for 1–3 days. Though more expensive, they provide smooth plasma concentrations of the drug without fluctuations; minimize interindividual variations (drug is subjected to little first pass metabolism) and side effects. They are also more convenient— many patients prefer transdermal patches to oral tablets of the same drug; patient compliance is better. Local irritation and erythema occurs in some, but is generally mild; can be minimized by changing the site of application each time by rotation. Discontinuation has been necessary in 2–7% cases.

 

  1. Inhalation

Volatile liquids and gases are given by inhalation for systemic action, e.g. general anaesthetics. Absorption takes place from the vast surface of alveoli—action is very rapid. When administration is discontinued the drug diffuses back and is rapidly eliminated in expired air. Thus, controlled administration is possible with moment to moment adjustment. Irritant vapours (ether) cause inflammation of respiratory tract and increase secretion.

  1. Nasal

The mucous membrane of the nose can readily absorb many drugs; digestive juices and liver are bypassed. However, only certain drugs like GnRH agonists and desmopressin applied as a spray or nebulized solution have been used by this route. This route is being tried for some other peptide drugs like insulin, as well as to bypass the bloodbrain barrier.

  1. Parenteral

Conventionally, parenteral refers to administration by injection which takes the drug directly into the tissue fluid or blood without having to cross the enteral mucosa. The limitations of oral administration are circumvented. Drug action is faster and surer (valuable in emergencies). Gastric irritation and vomiting are not provoked. Parenteral routes can be employed even in unconscious, uncooperative or vomiting patient. There are no chances of interference by food or digestive juices. Liver is bypassed. Disadvantages of parenteral routes are—the preparation has to be sterilized and is costlier, the technique is invasive and painful, assistance of another person is mostly needed (though self injection is possible, e.g. insulin by diabetics), there are chances of local tissue injury and, in general, parenteral route is more risky than oral.

The important parenteral routes are:

(i) Subcutaneous (s.c.)

The drug is deposited in the loose subcutaneous tissue which is richly supplied by nerves (irritant drugs cannot be injected) but is less vascular (absorption is slower than intramuscular). Only small volumes can be injected s.c. Self-injection is possible because deep penetration is not needed. This route should be avoided in shock patients who are vasoconstricted— absorption will be delayed. Repository (depot) preparations that are aqueous suspensions can be injected for prolonged action. Some special forms of this route are:

 (a) Dermojet

In this method needle is not used; a high velocity jet of drug solution is projected from a microfine orifice using a gun like implement. The solution passes through the superficial layers and gets deposited in the subcutaneous tissue. It is essentially painless and suited for mass inoculations.

(b) Pellet implantation

The drug in the form of a solid pellet is introduced with a trochar and cannula. This provides sustained release of the drug over weeks and months, e.g. DOCA, testosterone.

(c) Sialistic (nonbiodegradable) and biodegradable implants

Crystalline drug is packed in tubes or capsules made of suitable materials and implanted under the skin. Slow and uniform leaching of the drug occurs over months providing constant blood levels. The nonbiodegradable implant has to be removed later on but not the biodegradable one. This has been tried for hormones and contraceptives (e.g. NORPLANT).

 (ii) Intramuscular (i.m.)

The drug is injected in one of the large skeletal muscles—deltoid, triceps, gluteus maximus, rectus femoris, etc. Muscle is less richly supplied with sensory nerves (mild irritants can be injected) and is more vascular (absorption of drugs in aqueous solution is faster). It is less painful, but self injection is often impracticable because deep penetration is needed. Depot preparations (oily solutions, aqueous suspensions) can be injected by this route. Intramuscular injections should be avoided in anticoagulant treated patients, because it can produce local haematoma.

(iii) Intravenous (i.v

.) The drug is injected as a bolus (Greek: bolos–lump) or infused slowly over hours in one of the superficial veins. The drug reaches directly into the blood stream and effects are produced immediately (great value in emergency). The intima of veins is insensitive and drug gets diluted with blood, therefore, even highly irritant drugs can be injected i.v., but hazards are—thrombophlebitis of the injected vein and necrosis of adjoining tissues if extravasation occurs. These complications can be minimized by diluting the drug or injecting it into a running i.v. line. Only aqueous solutions (not suspensions, because drug particles can cause embolism) are to be injected i.v. and there are no depot preparations for this route. Chances of causing air embolism is another risk. The dose of the drug required is smallest (bioavailability is 100%) and even large volumes can be infused. One big advantage with this route is—in case response is accurately measurable (e.g. BP) and the drug short acting (e.g. sodium nitroprusside), titration of the dose with the response is possible. However, this is the most risky route—vital organs like heart, brain, etc. get exposed to high concentrations of the drug.

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION 10 Fastest routes

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION 10 Fastest routes PDF

routes of administration PPT

(iv) Intradermal injection

The drug is injected into the skin raising a bleb (e.g. BCG vaccine, sensitivity testing) or scarring/multiple puncture of the epidermis through a drop of the drug is done. This route is employed for specific purposes only.

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Bio-processing Upstream Downstream + Bioprocessing Companies PDF

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Bio-processing Upstream Downstream + Bioprocessing Companies PDF

Bio-processing Upstream Downstream + Bioprocessing Companies PDFBioprocessing: The fundamentals

The bioprocess is considered to be a very specific process that uses complete living cells or its components to obtain any desired products.  These living cells include bacteria, chloroplasts, enzymes and similar category of living cells.  The process involves transportation of their energy and their mass to many biological and environmental processes which is the basic of this productivity.  Now these therapeutic cell manufacturing processes can be differentiated into two main processes termed as the upstream processes and the downstream processes.  The upstream process is defined as the entire process from early cell isolation along with cultivation converting to cell banking and culture expansion of the cells till the stage of final harvest is reached.  Whereas, the downstream process involves the processing of those cell masses from the upstream to meet quality and purity requirements as per need.  This process involves cell disruption, purification and final polishing of the products.

 

The Two Processes

Upstream

The first process involved as stated above in Upstream involves the separation of cells.  Here involvement of growing of cells and microbes take place.  The steps also comprises of inoculum development, media development, improvement of those inoculum development by using genetical procedure (genetical engineering) along with growth kinetics involved into the process as well.  This in return will improve the product development by a greater extend.  This process is completed when the final harvesting of the cells are done.

 

Downstream

Once the Upstream process is completed, now the downstream part of the process starts.  Here the separation of the biomass takes place by centrifugation or ultra-centrifugation.  After it is over, the cell disruption is done which enables the product to get released.  The solid-liquid state is separated here by the use of centrifugation or filtration process.  Initial purification of metabolites takes place after concentration of broth takes place.  Finally, de-watering and polishing of the metabolites takes place and finally the product is formulated and sent to the market for the consumers in a seal packed manner.

 

The bioprocessing engineering involved

Bioprocess engineering or also called as the biochemical engineering is considered to be a specialization field of chemical engineering or Biological engineering which deals in development and designing of equipment and processes for the manufacturing of agriculture products along with involvement of food, pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals, polymers and chemicals as well.  This engineering also involves study of different biotechnological processes used in industries used for quality large scale production on a whole.

 

The process involves use of bioreactors which comprises of a fermentation chamber for growing of organisms like bacteria, yeast and other such microbes but under controlled temperature and condition supporting their growth.  The perfect example of this reactor’s involvement is found in pharmaceuticals, vaccines, antibodies and other such products.

 

The perfect application

This bioprocessing involves a wide variety of application field especially when we speak about biomedical research.  The study of this field has gained great significance attaining advancements in the field of biomedical research which simply paved the way for manufacturing of innovative pharmaceutical products that has led to a better development and truly opened a new horizon of possibilities in the pharmaceutical field.  This has truly been a significant achievement which involves different critical applications and manufacturing of certain products which have been never possible without the use of bioprocessing advancement.

 

In the coming days, bioprocessing will gain much more significance as compared to today and today’s achievements will simply mend the pathway for the betterment of this field in the future which in turn will certainly help our science to get more stronger and better like never before.

B Pharmacy Scope in India- What is the scope of B pharm?

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B Pharmacy Scope in India

B Pharmacy Scope in India: There has been much hype created in students in India for getting B Pharmacy degree and thus over the years this stream of education has been a first preference of many aspiring students who want to learn and obtain a degree.  Today we will be looking at what this is all about and how one can make a decent living by completing the B pharmacy degree and the scope and the options associated with this field in short.

Basic criteria

The Bachelor of Pharmacy degree which is popularly termed as B-Pharm in short is a four-year course with annual and semester schemes both available for the students to go through.  In order to get selected and eligible for a student to undergo this course one needs to fulfill certain eligibilities.  It includes passing with at least 50% marks in 10 + 2 or exam equivalent to it especially with biology or biotechnology as being one of the primary subjects when passing out.  The curriculum of B Pharmacy includes Human Anatomy and Physiology, Biochemistry, Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Mathematics and Bio statistics.  Now to this end one can find out different aptitude tests which they can clear out before continuing with this course.  The basic criteria in terms of age are that one must be at least 17 years of age and maximum 23 years while establishing their candidature.

 What is the scope of B pharmacy in India?

Career Scope for B-Pharmacy professionals

When we speak about a career in the pharmaceutical sciences then we are speaking about the ample of amount of opportunities that one could avail.  Hereby we provide some of the options that a pharmacy professional can take note of.

R & D:

This industry is basically based on research and development for the betterment.  M.Pharms and Ph.Ds are one of the best options for research of new drugs, process development, Toxicological Studies and many of the other options to opt for.  It can provide the students with new avenues of research.

Analysis and Testing:

In order to maintain a proper Quality control (QC) and Quality Assurance (QA) analysis and testing is a very highly skilled field to look for after completion of B-Pharma.  The student must be capable of handling sophisticated apparatus and equipment’s for this job.

B Pharmacy Scope in India

Production and Manufacturing: Production and manufacturing can be another option for the candidates to look out for.  One can start own production unit or work for some other companies in manufacturing of surgical dressings, biotechnological products, medical devices, equipment, veterinary medicine, Ayurvedic/ homeopathic cosmetics, soaps, and the list is endless.

Marketing:

Marketing of pharmaceutical products along with sales can provide students of B pharmacy with lucrative benefits and obviously a good scope to venture into.

Hospitals:

Most of the well-known hospitals have their own pharmacist to take care of the drug department and providing them with right medicine as prescribed by the physicians.  The Pharmacy graduates thus have a very important role to play here and the earning potential is really huge and very much attractive when compared to the other departments available for B pharmacy students.

Regulatory Bodies:

One of the finest options in this business is that of a drug controller, deputy drug controller, drug inspector, and other if the student really has the potential within.  These posts are controlled by FDA, the regulatory body dealing and implementing rules and regulations in related to Drug and Pharmaceutical industry.  These posts can really provide the aspiring student with good opportunity and a handsome earning as a complete outcome.

So the options are there to invade and require proper completion of the B pharmaceutical course.

What is DRX RPH Meaning Definition RX Full Form ?

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What is DRX RPH Meaning Definition RX Full Form ?

RX DRX-and-RPH: There are thousand of short abbreviations that are being used on a regular basis when we speak about pharmaceutical applications and in relation to taking drugs.  The medical dictionary has thousands of medical abbreviations that basically denote something in a shorter form which the physicians or those in relation to this trade are aware of but which most of us, the common masses or those who are not related to this field are aware of.  Each one of them has a specific meaning and denotes a specific action when speaking about the pharmaceutical products and is in accordance with treatment.  While the physicians prescribe drugs, generally they provide these short abbreviations in the prescriptions for us to know how and when to take them.  Today we are going to look at the meaning of DRx and RPh, its full form and use in brief here and consider its application and go through what they really means.

What is DRX RPH Meaning Definition RX Full Form ?

The meaning Rx and RPh

Rx and RPh are two of the most common abbreviations that are being used.  Firstly the “Rx” has derived from a Latin word which means “recipe”.  It basically means the action of taking something or receiving something or the fact of it being received.  This symbol basically has originated in the medieval manuscripts and denotes abbreviation of the late Latin verb “recipere”.  Here it denotes that the way how the things (which here is medicine) needs to be taken by the patient.  It basically denotes the direction by which the prescribed medicine needs to be taken by the patient in plain and simple words.  This is a symbol that is commonly found at the head of the prescription provided by the physician to us when means “take, thou”.

Thus accordingly when a pharmacist get the prescription and sees “Rx” written over it they get a clear idea about what the drugs have been prescribed to the patient and thus provides them in accordance to the order they are being prescribed.

What is “RPh”

Now speaking about “RPh” another most common term that is being used in the medical terminology and found common in the prescription, we get to know that it indicates the individual is registered under the State Board of Pharmacy (acknowledged by the Medical Board) and is eligible to prescribe drugs when in need.  He or she has been certified by the Government to prescribe medicines and drugs to patients.  The term “Rph” stands for “Registered Pharmacist”.  Now someone who is willing to complete and get registration must need to complete a tertiary degree in Pharmacy like that of a Bachelor or Master of Pharmacy.  Once the individual is graduated, he or she needs to go through a registration procedure with affiliated board of that particular country and complete internship which takes approximately a year or two (according to the rules laid by the medical bord of that particular country) and finally obtain a registered pharmacist degree.

Now in order to avoid any discrepancies the physicians use these types of short form which not only indicates how to take it but also denotes when to take.  It often helps them to write in short and to fully express what they intend to mean in the way of taking each and every drug as per the requirement.  Though these types of short abbreviations are quite impossible to understand for the common mass who have less knowledge about them, the druggist or the pharmacist who regularly handle medical cases are very much aware of the terms and understands the meaning perfectly.  This helps them to provide drugs to the patient in accordance.

{PDF} Tablet Evaluation – Pharmaceutics Pharmaceutical Apparatus Material PPT

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PDF Tablet Evaluation - Pharmaceutics Pharmaceutical Apparatus Material.JPG

Topic: {PDF} Tablet Evaluation – Pharmaceutics Pharmaceutical Apparatus Material: Tablets are defined as solid unit dosage form of medicaments intended for oral use. They became most popular as they were easy in preparation compared to any other type of dosage forms. But the major drawback exists in its manufacturing. If any minor problem occurs during their manufacturing then the whole batch of the unit should be discarded. It is necessary to avoid any sort of errors during its manufacturing and as a result evaluation of tablets is very important before dispatching of a batch. In the present study, we discussed about the evaluation tests for tablets.

Tablet Evaluation:

Before a tablet is released out into the market it has to pass a few quality checks, which is mandatory. Evaluation of tablet includes the assessment of tablets physical, chemical and biological properties. To studies them the following test are formulated

  •    Appearance,
  • • Size and Shape,
  • • Organoleptic properties,
  • • Uniformity of thickness,
  • • Hardness,
  • • Friability,
  • • Drug Content Uniformity,
  • • Weight Variation Test,
  • • Wetting time,
  • • Water Absorption Ratio,
  • • In vitro Dispersion Time,
  • • In vitro Disintegration Test,
  • • In vitro Dissolution Studies,
  • • Two set of apparatus,

Description:

Appearance:

Appearance is the first most required quality for the acceptance of tablet. General elegance and its identity play a major role for the consumer acceptance. Acceptance of the appearance of batches of the tablet has been done based on the measurement of the following factors like size, color, shape, presence or absence of odor, taste etc. [26-50]. Size and shape

General appearance is the physical appearance of the tablet it has two aspects to address

First one is the patient compliance, if the tablet is appearance is legible and good, it improves the patient compliance.

The second one Is for the manufacturer, it helps him in trouble free manufacturing if there is tablet to tablet, batch to batch and lot to lto uniformity of tablet.

General appearance would include a number of aspects like, size, shape, odor, taste, texture, legibility, identifying marks.

For rapid identification of the tablet and consumer acceptance the tablet are given a specific colour, the colour of the tablet will enable the manufacturer form differentiating the tablet lot.

The uniformity of the colour is important parameter here, the tablet should be free form mottling.

The colour uniformity and gloss of the tablet is evaluated by using reflectance spectrophotometer, tristimulus colorimetric measurement, microreflectance photometer.

Size and shape

Size and shape of a tablet has been determined by its thickness. Size and shape of a tables plays an important role in its patient compliance as the size of the tablet increases it is not much easier for its administration. Micrometer is the devise which is used to determine the thickness of a tablet. It can be acceptable if the batch falls within the ±5% of standard deviation.

Organoleptic properties:

Color should be distributed uniformly without appearance of any signs of mottling. Colour of the tablet should be compared with the standard colour for comparison.

Uniformity of thickness:

To determine the uniformity of thickness random selection of tablets has to be done from each and every batch and need to measure its thickness independently. If the thickness of any single tablet varies then the batch containing that batch will not be dispatched into market

 WEIGHT VARIATION TEST

The weight variation test would be a satisfactory method for determining drug content uniformity of drug distribution. In practice this test is performed by taking 20 tablets, from a batch. 20 tablets are weighed at a time and the average weight is taken. Then the tablet is weighed individually.

 

Average Weight Percentage Difference
130 mg or less 10
More than 130 mg through
324 mg		 7.5
More than 324 mg 5

2) THICKNESS AND DIAMETER (SIZE AND SHAPE)

The thickness of individual tablets is measured with a micrometer, which gives us information about the variation between tablets. Tablet thickness should be within a ±5% variation of a standard value. Any variation in thickness within a particular lot of tablets or between manufacturer’s lots should not be clear to the unaided eye for consumer acceptance of the product. In addition, thickness should be controlled to smooth the progress of packaging.

PDF Tablet Evaluation - Pharmaceutics Pharmaceutical Apparatus Material.JPG

Different shapes and sizes of tablet are available in the market they are manufactured in order to differentiate them based on their purpose of use and quantity of active ingredient, and the age group of the patient who is going to be administered with the drug.

Heart shape tablet signify that they are for the cardiac problems, small toy shape, tablet are manufactured in order to attract children etc.

The shape and size of a tablet would vary based on tooling used in the tablet manufacturing.

The prime consideration here would be the crown size, because if the concavity is very high it many lead to capping, or chipping problem.

The crown size is measured by using micrometer, and sliding caliper scale is used to measure the size of 5 to 10 tablets at a time.

We use Micrometer for tablet thickness

3) UNIQUE IDENTIFICATION MARK:

Pharmaceutical manufacturers in order to differentiate their product from the other manufacturers emboss a special marking g on the tablet. The marking can be an embossing, engraving or printing.

Apart from the company marking there can be imprints which include product code, product name, product potenct,

But care must be taken that the letters that are embossed on the tablet are properly printed without double impression.

5) HARDNESS AND FRIABILITY:

The hardness of the tablet is important for drug products that have bioavailability problem or that are sensitive to altered dissolution release profiles as a function of the compressive force employed. Tablet hardness is the force necessary to break the tablet diametrically. The tablets must be hard enough to withstand mechanical stress during packaging, shipment, and handling by the consumer.

Section <1216> of the USP 24/NF19 outlines a standard tablet friability test applicable to manufactured tablets. Most compounding pharmacy would not have the apparatus specified in Section <1216>. However, there are several hand operated tablet hardness testers that might be useful. Examples of devices are the Strong Cobb, Pfizer, and Stokes hardness testers. The principle of measurement involves subjecting the tablet to an increasing load until the tablet breaks or fractures. The load is applied along the radial axis of the tablet. Oral tablets normally have a hardness of 4 to 8 or 10 kg; however, hypodermic and chewable tablets are much softer (3 kg) and some sustained release tablets are much harder (10-20 kg).

Tablet hardness and strength are the essential to see that the tablet can with the shock and stress during manufacturing packing and transportation, and while handled by the patient.

To test the hardness of the tablet Monsanto tester, Strong-cobb tester, the Pfizer tester, the Erweka tester, the Schleuniger tester are used.

Hardness is sometimes termed the tablet crushing strength. To perform this test the tablets are located between two anvils and force is applied to the anvils, and the strength required to break the tablet is noted. If the tablet is too hard, the disintegration time is long and cannot meet up the dissolution specification, if its too soft, it cannot withstand handling when dealing with processes such as coating or packaging and shipping operations. The force with which the tablet is broken is expressed in kilograms and a hardness of 4Kg is usually well thought-out to be the minimum for satisfactory tablets. Oral tablets have a hardness of 4 to 10kg ; but, hypodermic and chewable tablets  have a hardness of 3 kg  and sustained release tablets have about 10-20 kg.

Pfzier hardness tester was used for measuring the hardness of the formulated Paracetamol tablets. From each batch 3 tablets were taken at random and subjected to test. The mean of these 3 tablets were calculated.

Friability is the tested for a tablet to see weather the tablet is stable to abrasion or not, it is tested by using Roche friabilator. This is made up of a plastic drum fixed with a machine which rotated at 25 rpm for 100 revolutions. And then the twenty tablets which were weighed prior to the test are taken out of the drum and cleaned with a cloth and weighed once again, the weight variation must not be less than 0.5 to 1.0% for an conventional tablet.

6) WEIGHT VARIATION:

Weight variation test is performed to check that the manufactured tablets have an uniform weight.

As per USP twenty tablets are weighed individually and an compendia weight is taken, the average weight is obtained by dividing the compendia weight by 20, now the average weight is compared to the individual weight of the tablet,

For a tablet to pass the test not more than 2 tablets should lie out of the specified percentage and if no tablet differs by more than two times the percentage limit.

Average weight

Maximum percentage difference allowed

WETTING TIME (Gohel et al., 2004)

A circular tissue paper of 10cm diameter were placed in a Petri dish having an internal diameter of 10 cm. 10 ml of water containing methylene blue (10% w/w) was added to the Petri dish. The tablet was carefully placed in the centre of the Petri dish and the time taken for the water to reach the upper surface of the tablets was known as wetting time.

7) DISINTEGRATION:

Disintegration is the first physical change observed for a drug when it enters into the body, thus to see simulate the disintegration of the tablet in the body the disintegration test is performed.

As per USP the disintegration apparatus consist of 6 glass tubes with a 10 number mesh at the bottom, each tube is 3 inch long.

This arrangement of 6 tubes is placed in a medium simulated to the disintegration environment. Which is maintained at 37oc +/- 2oc, in 1 liter vessel.

This system is made to move up and down through a distance of 5 to 6 cm at a frequency of 28 to 32 cycles per minute.

The disintegration time of the tablet is compared with the values in the monograph.

DRUG CONTENT (IP, 2007)

20 tablets were weighed and powdered. A quantity of powder containing 0.15 g of Paracetamol was added to 0.1 M NaOH, diluted with 100 ml of water. It was shaken for 15 minutes and sufficient water was added to produce 200 ml. 10 ml of the filtrate was diluted to 100 ml with water. Then 10 ml of the resulting solution was added to 10 ml of 0.1 M NaOH, finally diluted to 100 ml with water. The absorbance was measured at maximum of 257 nm. Calculate the content of C5H9N02 taking 715 as the value of A (1%, 1cm) at maximum at 257 nm.

8) DISSOLUTION:

Tablet dissolution: Disintegration time determination is a useful tool for production control, but disintegration of a tablet does not imply that the drug has dissolved. A tablet can have a rapid disintegration time yet be biologically unavailable. The dissolution rate of the drug from the primary particles of the tablet is the important factor in drug absorption and for many formulations is the rate-limiting step. Therefore, a dissolution time is more indicative of the availability of a drug from a tablet than the disintegration test. Even though this is an important parameter to measure, most pharmacies do not have the equipment needed to conduct these kinds of tests.

The rate and extent of drug release form the tablet is estimated by dissolution test

Different types of apparatus are used to study the dissolution test of the tablet. As per IP apparatus I (paddle) and apparatus II(basket) are used. called basket dissolution apparatus and paddle dissolution apparatus

But as per USP dissolution apparatus used are

USP 30 classification

i. Rotating Basket (Ph.Eur./BP/JP)

ii. Paddle (Ph.Eur./BP/JP)

iii. Reciprocating Cylinder (Ph.Eur.)

iv. Flow Through Cell (Ph.Eur./BP/JP)

v. Paddle Over Disk (Ph.Eur.)

vi. Rotating Cylinder (Ph.Eur.)

vii. Reciprocating Holder

  1. DISSOLUTION KINETICS (Higuchi WI, 1962)

Method used to compare dissolution data is:

  • Model Dependent Methods (zero order, first order, Higuchi and Korsmeyer’s- Peppas).

Drug release kinetics

Drug release kinetics was studied from the datas obtained from in-vitro drug release studies which were plotted in various kinetics models: Zero order (equation 1) as Cumulative percentage of drug released against Time, First order (equation 2) as Log cumulative percentage of drug unreleased against Time, and Higuchi model (equation 3) as Cumulative percentage of drug released against Square root of time.

C = K0 t                                    (equation 1)

where       K0 indicates zero order rate constant expressed as                            concentration per time and t indicates the time in                                   hours.

A graph of concentration against time gives a straight line with a slope equal to K0 and intercept the origin of the axis.

log C = log C0 – K t/2.303                              (equation 2)

where         C0 be the initial concentration of drug,

K be the first order constant, and t is the time.

Q = K t1/2                                                                        (equation 3)

where        K indicates the constant of the system, t indicates the   time in hours.

Drug release were plotted in Korsmeyer equation (equation 4) as Log cumulative percentage of drug released against Log time, and the exponent was calculated from  the slope of the straight line.

Mt / Mα =  K tn                                                             (equation 4)

where          Mt / Mα is the fraction of solute release, t is the release time,  K is the kinetic constant

The dissolution time and rate is compared to the values mentioned in the monograph.

In vitro disintegration test

Disintegration is defined as the process of breakdown of tablet into small particles. Disintegration time of a tablet is determined by using disintegration test apparatus as per IP specifications. Place each tablet in each 6 tubes of the disintegration apparatus a then add a disc to each tube containing 6.8 pH phosphate buffer. The temperature of the buffer should maintain at 37 ± 2°C and run the apparatus raised and lowered for 30 cycles per minute. Note down the time taken for the complete disintegration of the tablet without any remitants .

References
1. J. S. Swarbrick, Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology, Third dition – 6 Volume Set,
Taylor & Francis, 2006.

Lachman et al., 1990

 

Free Medical Books For You – Free Pharmaceutical Books For You

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Free Medical Books For You - Free Pharmaceutical Books For You

Free Medical Books For You

When you are a student in the medical stream you not just have to love reading but have to learn the concepts well and not memorizing the words. Physicians say, “If you want to graduate from medical school, there are two rules: Don’t fall behind and don’t fall in love.” Studying medicine would need your stubborn patience. Mostly the books recommended from the medical school books are huge textbooks that one finds difficult to finish, even if medical school was extended to six years. Reading in clinical practice is important as it relates to clinical competencies including patient care, medical knowledge and practice-based learning. Majority of students report problems with reading. The main problem has been an unclear source to read about their patients. This can be attributed to the lack of students’ skills to search and find the proper information needed. This issue if enhanced in the first year of medical school the students’ would become to be self-learners and know how to make use of the available learning resources.

In a questionnaire for fifth-year students, King Saud University College of Medicine, 76%reported reading for an average of 4.3(SD 5) (median three hours per week, range zero to 35 hours per week). The most commonly used resources are pocketbooks and medical textbooks. Students spend a sufficient amount of time reading medical pocketbooks and lecture handouts with less time spend on online sources. Students need to be advised to use the update online sources more frequent. Spending more time reading maximizes the efficiency and performances during the clinical rotations.

Below are some links where you can get some collection of medical books in soft copy version:-

http://www.freebooks4doctors.com/

http://medicalbooksfree.com/

Folder link–> Anatomy – Google Drive

Authors

1–> KLM for Gross Anatomy

2–> Snell’s Anatomy

3–> BD Churassia

4–> RJ Last

5–> Grey’s Anatomy

6–> Langman Embryology

7–> KLM for Embryology

8–> BD for General Anatomy

9–> Dissector

10–> Di Fore Histology

11–> Junqueira’s Histology

12–> Netter Atlas of human Anatomy

Folder link–> Physiology – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Guyton

2–> Ganong

3–> Sheerwood

4–> Sembulingam

Folder link–> Biochemistry – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Harper

2–> Lippincott

3–> Chatterjea

4–> Satyanarayan

5–> Stryer

6–> MRS Biochemistry

Folder link–> Pathology – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Big Robins

2–> Medium Robins

3–> Pathoma

4–> Goljan

5–> Harsh Mohan Pathology

6–> Atlas of Histopathology

7–> Levinson

8–> MRS microbiology

9–> Microbiology by Jacquelyn G. Black

10–> Color Atlas of Microbiology

11–> Kaplan Pathology

Free Medical Books For You - Free Pharmaceutical Books For You

Folder link–> Pharmacology – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Big Katzung

2–> Mini Katzung

3–> Kaplan Review

4–> Lippincott

5–> Pocket Katzung

6–> Rang and Dale’s Pharmacology

7–> Atlas of Pharmacology

Folder link–> Forensic Medicine – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Simpson’s Forensics

2–> Krishan’s Forensics

3–> Atlas of Autopsy

4–> Atlas of Forensic Medicine

Folder link–> Eye – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Jogi

2–> Jatoi

3–> Parson’s Textbook of Eye

4–> Kanski

5–> AK Khurana

6–> Atlas of ophthalmology

Folder link–> ENT – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Dhingra

2–> Logans Turner

3–> Color Atlas of Otorhinolaryngology

4–> Maqbool’s Text Book of ENT

5–> Clinical Methods in ENT by PT Wakode

6–> ENT at a Glance

Folder link–> Community Medicine – Google Drive

Authors

1–> Monica’s Text Book Community Medicine

2–> Mahajan And Gupta Text Book of Community Medicine

3–> Bancroft’s Text Book of Community Medicine

> https://drive.google.com/open?id…  Physiology:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id…  Biochemistry:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Pathology:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Pharmacology:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Forensic Medicine:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Ophthalmology:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Otorhinolaryngology:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Community Medicine:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Medicine:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Surgery:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Obstetrics & Gynecology:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… Pediatrics:-Folder link–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… 1st Professional Books–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… 2nd Professional Books–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… 3rd Professional Books–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… 4th Professional Books–> https://drive.google.com/open?id… One Link For All eBooks–> https://drive.google.com/open?id…

When you study, focus on studying. Take your book, some earplugs, some paper, a pen, and take notes on what you’re trying to learn. Writing things out helps you remember concepts. All the other distractions make it harder for you to concentrate on learning. Don’t take your phone with you, or take it and pull the battery out of it. Subjects like anatomy and pharmacology include memorizing relationships. Remember, medical school is about drinking a vast amount of information efficiently. You can’t do that with a textbook. There’s a big difference between “book sense” and “common sense.” You need both to succeed.

Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes – Motivational Best pharmacist Quotes

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Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes 3

Being a Pharmacist is not easy as it looks. This challenging and demanding job needs loads and loads of experience and toiling hard everyday to achieve success. Thus being a pharmacist people took immense pride and as a result there are thousands and thousands of quotes that depicts how proud they are of their profession. Most of the quotes available do sketch the importance of how a Pharmacist works under immense pressure day and night and what a challenging role he has to face in dealing with its profession. It really gives a glimpse of the professional does and don’ts in many ways. Few of them comes in a funny backdrop with a real expression insight whereas some are pretty much straight forward and serious.

Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes 1 Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes 2

Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes – Motivational Best pharmacist Quotes Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes 3 Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes 4 Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes 5 Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes 6

Few of the quotes truly gives a vibes of what are the reasons for which this professionals should be getting love and respect from us due to the huge effort they put in to help us fight with diseases and issues while other offers thanks and gratitude for the services that a pharmacist provides to the generally masses. All in all these quotes basically portray the nature of the trade and issues related to it.

Proud To Be Pharmacist Quotes

Proud To Be Pharmacist Quote 7

From the point of view of a common man, we must truly remain indebted to a pharmacist for the services he renders to us as one mistake of him can simply cost our life or prove to be immensely fatal. Proud to be a pharmacist quotes truly brings the best of the pharmacy professions. Most of them are truly hilarious and often make us burst into laughter, others are of serious mood and does contain an inner meaning that remains on the base. “Proud to be a pharmacist quotes” are something worth reading and enjoying.

Is It Easy To Get Pass Marks In B. Pharmacy? D Pharmacy ? M Pharmacy

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Is It Easy To Get Pass Marks In B. Pharmacy?

Is It Easy To Get Pass Marks In B. Pharmacy?

Well, this question is to be answered in terms of relativity. This is because there is no benchmark of inference to conclude. To some, it may appear easy to some it may appear hard. Actually, in a broader sense, we can say that no course is easy or tough if you are willing to study it. Therefore to get pass marks would not be a matter of concern for you. In your formative years, if you have had good teachers, then you can develop interest. If you harbour an interest in a particular subject then it becomes easy for you. Mainly students having an inclination towards B group of science join the pharmacy stream. On this note, subjects such as remedial mathematics; biostatistics can be hard for some. Since it covers almost every field in science we can say it is one of the toughest courses. The ultimatum depends on someone’s hard work, dedication. The one who studies with passion can earn good marks and earning pass marks won’t be tough job for them. In fact, the teachers opine that it is somewhat difficult to fail in B. Pharmacy course. But if you are thinking that can you get pass marks by studying subjects of B. Pharmacy just prior exams, then the answer would undoubtedly be “No”. If you assume ‘easy’ means lesser portion, then also the answer would be no. It is a vast course with lengthy subjects.

Is It Easy To Get Pass Marks In B. Pharmacy? D Pharmacy 

Now according to the norms of the B. Pharmacy education in India, the criteria of a passing candidate are as follows:-

  • To pass the examination in any subject, minimum passing for any component (head) is 40%, subject to the condition of 50% aggregate requirement for semester passing.
  • Grade in each subject will be calculated based on the summation of marks obtained under each head of the examination of Sessional Theory, External Theory, Sessional Practical and External Practical. Theory and practical component of the same course shall be considered as a separate head.
  • If a candidate gets more than or equals 50% marks in all heads of the subject it is considered as pass.
  • If a student gets 40% in some heads/subjects but the aggregate is more than 50% than also student will be passed.Is It Easy To Get Pass Marks In B. Pharmacy?
  • If student aggregate is less than 50% but more than 40% in all heads, then overall semester result is failed. The student has to reappear in the exam to improve aggregate. The candidate can take the remedial exam in the subject with grade (CC/CD). One can take maximum subjects of three and fresh score will always be considered as the latest one.

Pharmacy Faculty / Lecturer Job Opportunities in Hyderabad | Pharma Colleges

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Lecturer Job Opportunities in Hyderabad

Lecturer Job Opportunities in Hyderabad   :  A career as a lecturer requires a graduate-level education, subject-area expertise and the desire to share knowledge. They teach academic or career topics to students pursuing college or university degrees. Hyderabad the name sounds historical though but now with the time, it has evolved into an industrial hub and home to many. It is such a place that offers various kinds of opportunities in education, jobs and business. In this article, we are going to discuss the jobs related to lectureships and its scope in this state. What and how to start and where to go, if you have these questions in mind then please go through the content.

Lecturers are required to be subject-area experts because they need to have solid insight on specific subjects of teaching and calls for up gradation along with the time. Few lecturers fulfill this requirement by conducting original research as part of a postdoctoral fellowship. Publishing original research in professional journals within the fellowship provides a solid body of work in a subject area. The criteria for becoming a lecturer in private colleges require a Master’s degree and a first-class doctoral degree or have a valid NET/SET score for the govt. or central govt. college based on the discipline. Besides these, the experience of teaching, work experience in the specific field; research and publication gets priority while hiring. The key skills needed are research, critical thinking, communication, writing, and computer skills; knowledge of classroom management with no age bar in most cases.

Lecturer Job Opportunities in HyderabadPharmacy Faculty Jobs in Hyderabad

The All India Status of Higher Education (AISHE) report reveals that  | Hyderabad occupies the third highest number of colleges in the country. It clocks the third position leaving behind only Bengaluru and Jaipur. As per the annual report, Hyderabad has 487 colleges covering over 90% of colleges those are private unaided colleges. Majority of them offer under-graduate general courses included nursing, agriculture and engineering courses. The districts of Rangareddy have 395 colleges and Nalgonda has 289 coming fifth and tenth respectively. Guntur district occupied the eighth spot with 309 colleges. Thus, it is quite obvious that many opportunities can emerge throughout the region for the lecturer jobs.

How to Start Apollo Pharmacy Franchise Setup in India? Procedure Documents Licence

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How to Start Apollo Pharmacy Franchise Setup in India? Procedure Documents Licences

Apollo Pharmacy Franchise Setup in India :Apollo Pharmacy is a division of Chennai-based major healthcare Apollo Hospitals Enterprises Ltd. With India’s first and largest branded pharmacy network with more than 740 key locations outlets, it is accredited with International Quality Qualification offering genuine medicines with 24 hours of service. Apollo Pharmacy VP Atul Ahuja said it would add 250 outlets every year and that it has grown between 30 to 35 per cent every year. The company had a turnover of 1,150 cores in the last financial year. He mentioned that it is feasible to have home delivery of medicines, but the law of the land says that the dispensing of the medicines have to be done by the qualified pharmacists. He further said dispensing has become a critical aspect in the pharmacy retail chain business, which includes transportation, warehousing in proper cold environment and distribution, which are managed at the back end.

Why franchising Apollo Pharmacy?

Franchising is witnessing a consistent demand from the metros and other cities. If you are really interested to own this franchise, you have to gain insight into the franchise setup of the pharmacy. On one hand, as the owner of an independent business, you leverage your entrepreneurial capabilities while working with a nationally recognized brand like Apollo minimizes your risks. On the other hand, all the knowledge and expertise required to successfully run the business is ensured from the pharmacy end. The entire work of supply chain management right from procuring to warehousing and sale at outlets is done by an experienced pharmacist. Every business oriented person is aware of the great possibilities of facing problems in his career. In spite of knowing this, every businessman takes the risk because he has the courage that he can eventually resolve them and he also knows the rewards awaiting him after that. The bright side of working under the canopy of a large organization would be over-emphasized and is huge in India.

Franchise Benefits

The Apollo Pharmacy franchise has more to share about franchising considering some basic matters first before proceeding to the requirements. As a franchisee of Apollo Pharmacy, you definitely become the gainer. Check out how you can be?

  • The biggest benefit you are going to get while you own a pharmacy franchise is the great discount of the products from the wholesalers.
  • Better access to the newest technologies and access to approved new drugs, partnerships with the biomedical distributors and major medical and more exposure of your business through various advertising.
  • Being a part of Apollo Clinics network spreading across the Asian sub-continent, you will be able to offer world-class services without consuming your fortune.
  • You will have access to years of healthcare domain knowledge and expertise. You can achieve your business goals with the help of Apollo Pharmacy franchise’s essential guidelines and information about the pharmacy and anything about franchising also.

How do I get Apollo pharmacy franchise?

The very first step in the business process all franchising companies and franchisee take generally is, filling out the application forms and agreement. The most vital requirement is the financial investment along with the other qualifications. When it is fulfilled you can proceed to the final step which the training. It is done on hands and sometimes with orientation. The company is supposed to provide sufficient training to know everything inside and outside of the pharmacy.

Strategies you should implement as an Apollo pharmacy franchise

How to Start Apollo Pharmacy Franchise Setup in India? Procedure Documents Licences

To any of the franchise, the Apollo Pharmacy is generous enough to share its core strategies on how to manage your pharmacy carefully. Usually, you will learn more about its strategies during your actual training. You have to implement those to really boom your setup but yes it’s also not that you really have to take every detail they share to you. The successful businessman doesn’t depend on everything to the strategy of the mother company and therefore you must also combine your own ways to keep your business expanding. Use and gather knowledge, detect your limitations and of the company as well your personal strengths and weaknesses to plan beforehand of every action you take. Remember that you will be opinionated judged still it is important to listen to your own voice as long as you are sure of the outcome no matter what others tell you.